Citation with stable link: Philip A. Harland, 'Romans: Rabbis on four successive imperial powers – Babylonians, Medes, Greeks, Romans (fifth century CE and earlier),' Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World, last modified March 26, 2024, https://philipharland.com/Blog/?p=18157.
Ancient authors: Daniel 7 (for context); various rabbis’ opinions as collected in Leviticus Rabbah 13.5 (link)
Comments: The notion of a succession of imperial powers was widespread in the ancient world and an important part of the evaluation or characterization of other peoples, sometimes with quite negative overtones about foreign powers. This post draws on a substantial passage from a Judean interpretation (midrash) of the biblical book of Leviticus (perhaps fifth century CE) which gathers together a variety of earlier rabbinic opinions about a four-fold succession: Babylonians, Medians / Persians, Greeks / Greco-Macedonians, and Romans (by way of the proxy figure of Edom, standing for Edomites or Idumeans). As the current hegemonic people, the Romans are given most negative attention, including a rabbinic saying comparing the Romans to a pig. The compiler cites as authorities not only Moses but also Abraham and Daniel, dealing with numerous rabbinic interpretations of biblical materials. Identifications of the four beasts in Daniel’s apocalypse could change over time, in this case having the fourth beast as the Romans rather than Daniel’s own sequence of Babylonians, Medians, Persians, and Greeks. Daniel 7 is supplied for context.
Works consulted: J. Neusner, From Enemy to Sibling: Rome and Israel in the First Century of Western Civilization (New York, NY: Queens College of the City University of New York, 1986).
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Daniel 7
[Vision of four beasts as successive imperial powers: Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Greco-Macedonians, as becomes clear in chapter 8, not included here]
In the first year of Belshazzar the king of Babylon, Daniel saw a dream and visions of his head as he lay on his bed; then he wrote down the dream and the summary of the words as follows: Daniel explained and said, “I was looking in my vision in the night, and look, the four winds of heaven were stirring up the great sea. And four great beasts were coming up from the sea, differing from one another. The first was like a lion and had the wings of an eagle [later explained as Babylonians]. I was watching until its wings were plucked off, and it was lifted up from the earth and it was raised on its feet like a human, and a human heart was given to it. And look, another beast, a second one, looking like a bear. And it was raised up on one side and three tusks were in its mouth between its teeth, and so it was told, ‘Arise, eat much flesh!’ After this I was watching and look, another beast like a leopard. It had four wings of a bird on its back, and the beast had four heads, and dominion was given to it. After this in the visions of the night I was looking and there was a fourth beast, terrifying and frightful and extremely strong, and it had great iron teeth, and it was devouring and crushing, and it stamped the remainder with its feet; and it was different from all the other beasts that preceded it and it had ten horns. I was considering the horns, and look, another little horn came up among them, and three of the earlier horns were rooted out from before it, and there were eyes like the eyes of a human in this horn and also a mouth that was speaking boastfully.”
“I continued watching until thrones were established and an Ancient of Days sat. His clothing was like white snow and the hair of his head was like pure wool and his throne was a flame of fire and its wheels were burning fire. A stream of fire issued forth and flowed from his presence. Thousands upon thousands served him and ten thousand upon ten thousand stood before him. The judge sat, and the books were opened. I continued watching then because of the noise of the boastful words of the horn who was speaking; I continued watching until the beast was slain and its body was destroyed, and it was given over to burning with fire. And as for the remainder of the beasts, their dominion was taken away, but a prolongation of their life was given to them for a season and a time.”
“I continued watching in the visions of the night, and look, with the clouds of heaven one like a son of man was coming, and he came to the Ancient of Days, and was presented before him. And to him was given dominion and glory and kingship that all the peoples, the nations, and languages would serve him; his dominion is a dominion without end that will not cease, and his kingdom is one that will not be destroyed.”
[Angel explains the vision]
“As for me, Daniel, my spirit was troubled within me, and the visions of my head terrified me. So I approached one of the attendants and I asked him about the truth concerning all this. He told me that he would make known to me the explanation of the matter. ‘These great beasts which are four in number are four kings who will arise from the earth. But the holy ones of the Most High will receive the kingdom, and they will take possession of the kingdom forever, forever and ever.’”
“Then I desired to make certain concerning the fourth beast that was different from all the others—exceedingly terrifying, with its iron teeth and its claws of bronze; it devoured and crushed and stamped the remainder with its feet— and concerning the horns that were on its head, and concerning the other horn that came up and before which three horns fell, and this horn had eyes and a mouth speaking boastfully, and its appearance was larger than its companions. I continued watching, and this horn made war with the holy ones and it prevailed over them, until the Ancient of Days came and gave judgment to the holy ones of the Most High; and the time arrived and the holy ones took possession of the kingdom. “And he said, ‘The fourth beast is the fourth kingdom that will be on the earth that will be different from all the other kingdoms, and it will devour the whole earth and it will trample it and it will crush it. And as for the ten horns coming from it, from this kingdom ten kings will arise, and another will arise after them. And he will be different from the earlier ones, and he will subdue three kings. And he will speak words against the Most High, and he will wear out the holy ones of the Most High, and he will attempt to change times and law, and they will be given into his hand for a time and two times and half a time. Then the court will sit, and his dominion will be removed, to be eradicated and to be destroyed totally. And the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven will be given to the nation of the holy ones of the Most High; his kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all the dominions will serve and obey him.’ This is the end of the account. As for me, Daniel—my thoughts terrified me greatly and my face changed over me, but I kept the matter in my heart.”
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Rabbis in Leviticus Rabbah
[Moses on four rivers as four successive peoples and empires: Babylonians, Medians / Persians, Greeks, and Romans]
Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman said: All the prophets saw the kingdoms in their activities. That is what is written: “A river emerged from Eden to water (the garden, and from there it parted and became four streams)” (Genesis 2:10). Rabbi Tanhuma, and some say rabbi Menaham in the name of rabbi Joshua ben Levi, said: The Holy One, blessed be he, is destined to give the peoples of the world to drink from the cup of bewilderment in the future. “A river emerged from Eden,” the place from which justice (din) emerges.
“From there it parted and became four streams” (Genesis 2:10). These are the four rivers.
“The name of the first is Pishon” (Genesis 2:11) refers to Babylon, as in: “Its horsemen will spread (ufashu)” (Habakkuk 1:8). “It is the one that encircles the entire land of Havilah” (Genesis 2:11) refers to the wicked Nebuchadnezzar, who ascended and encircled the entire land of Israel, which longs (meyaḥelet) for the Holy One blessed be he. That is what is written: “Yearn (hoḥili) for God” (Psalms 42:6). “Where the gold is” (Genesis 2:11), these are words of Torah, as it is stated: “They are more desirable than gold, than much fine gold” (Psalms 19:11). “The gold of that land is good” (Psalms 19:12). This teaches that there is no Torah like the Torah of the land of Israel, and there is no wisdom like the wisdom of the land of Israel. “There is the bdellium and the onyx stone” (Genesis 2:12) alludes to Bible, Mishnah, Talmud, legal decisions (halakhot), and explanations (agadda).
“The name of the second river is Gihon” (Genesis 2:13) refers to Media [i.e. Persia], which produced the wicked Haman, who beat the dough like a serpent, as in, “you [the snake] will go on your belly” (Genesis 3:14). “It is that which encircles the entire land of Kush [i.e. south of Egypt, or Ethiopia in Greek terms]” (Genesis 2:13). As it is stated: “From India to Kush” (Esther 1:1).
“The name of the third river is Hidekel” (Genesis 2:14) refers to Greece, which is sharp (ḥada) and swift (vekala) in their edicts against Israel, and says to them: “Write on the horn of the ox: Israel has no portion in the God of Israel.” “It is that which flows east of Assyria” (Genesis 2:14). On this Rabbi [in a Babylonian setting] Huna said: All the kingdoms are called Assyria, as they bolstered (me’ashrin) themselves at Israel’s expense. Rabbi Jose ben Rabbi Hanina said: All the kingdoms are called Egypt (Mitzrayim) because they would torment (metzeirim) Israel.
“The fourth river is Euphrates (Perat)” (Genesis 2:14) refers to Edom [here a proxy for Rome], which flourished (sheparat) and multiplied through the prayer of the elder; or, alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented Israel’s world; or, alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented his [God’s] son; or, alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented his [God’s] house; or, alternatively, Perat, after its end, as it is stated: “I have trodden a winepress alone” (Isaiah 63:3).
[Abraham on the four empires]
Abraham saw the kingdoms in their activities. “And behold, dread (eima), a great darkness fell upon him” (Genesis 15:12) refers to Babylon, as in, “Nebuchadnezzar was filled with fury (ḥema)” (Daniel 3:19). “Darkness” (Genesis 15:12) refers to Media, which darkened Israel with its edicts, as it is stated: “To destroy, to kill, and to eliminate” (Esther 3:13). “Great” (Genesis 15:12) refers to Greece. Rabbi [in a Babylonian context] Nahman said: This teaches that the Greek kingdom appointed one hundred and seventy-one governors and one hundred and twenty-seven commanders. The Rabbis say: Sixty of each. Rabbi Berekiah and Rabbi Hanin regarding that of the rabbis: “Who guides you in the great and awesome wilderness: snake, fiery serpent, and scorpion” (Deuteronomy 8:15). “Snake” refers to Babylon; “fiery serpent” refers to Media; “scorpion” refers to Greece. Just as this scorpion spawns sixty at a time, so too, the kingdom of Greece appointed sixty of each. “Fell” (Genesis 15:12) refers to Edom [i.e. Rome], after: “From the sound of their fall the earth quakes” (Jeremiah 49:21).
Some say: “Dread” refers to Edom, as in: “Fearsome and terrifying” (Daniel 7:7). “Darkness” refers to Greece. “Great (gedola)” refers to Media, as in: “King Ahasueros [of Persia] promoted (gidel) (Haman)” (Esther 3:1). “Fell” (Genesis 15:12) refers to Babylon, as in: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon” (Isaiah 21:9).
[Daniel on the four empires]
Daniel saw the kingdoms in their activities. That is what is written: “I was seeing in my vision at night, and, behold, I saw the four winds of the heavens bursting forth to the great sea. Four great beasts arose from the sea” (Daniel 7:2–3); if you deserve it, [the beast arose] from the sea; if not, from the forest. When the beast of the sea ascends from the sea it is timid. When a beast emerges from the forest, it is not timid. Likewise, “the boar from the forest (miyaar) gnaws at it” (Psalms 80:14). The letter ayin is suspended; if you merit, from the river (yeor), if not, from the forest. When a beast ascends from the river it is timid. When a beast emerges from the forest, it is not timid.
“Each different from the other” (Daniel 7:3). Here do not read “different (shanyan),” but rather, “they hate (sanyan) one another.” This teaches that every nation that rules the world hates Israel and subjugates them. “The first was like a lion” (Daniel 7:4) refers to Babylon. Jeremiah saw it as a lion and saw it as an eagle, as it is written: “A lion has risen from its thicket” (Jeremiah 4:7), “behold, like the eagle it will ascend” (Jeremiah 49:22). They said to Daniel: “How did you see them?” He said to them: “I saw the face of a lion and wings of an eagle.” That is what is written: “The first was like a lion and had wings of an eagle. I was looking until its wings were torn off, and it was lifted from the ground” (Daniel 7:4).
Rabbi Eleazar and rabbi Samuel bar Nahman, rabbi Eleazar says: The entire lion was afflicted, but its heart was not afflicted, as it is written: “And a man’s heart was given to it” (Daniel 7:4). Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman said: Even his heart was afflicted, as it is written: “Let its heart be altered from that of a man” (Daniel 4:13).”
I was seeing” (Daniel 7:2). “Behold another, a second beast, resembling a bear (ledov)” (Daniel 7:5). Ledov, which is Media, is written in accordance with the opinion of rabbi Johanan. As rabbi Johanan said: “Therefore, a lion from the forest smote them” (Jeremiah 5:6) refers to Babylon. “A wolf of the deserts will plunder them” (Jeremiah 5:6) refers to Media. “A leopard lies in wait by their cities (Jeremiah 5:6) refers to Greece. “Everyone who emerges from them will be mauled” (Jeremiah 5:6) refers to Edom [i.e. the Romans]. Why? It is “because their transgressions have magnified, their deviances have intensified” (Jeremiah 5:6). “I saw, and behold another, like a leopard” (Daniel 7:6) refers to Greece, which was impudent in its edicts and would say to Israel: “Write on the horn of the ox that you have no portion in the world to come.”
“After this I was seeing in the night visions, and behold, a fourth beast, fearsome, terrifying, and very (yatira) powerful” (Daniel 7:7) refers to Edom [i.e. the Romans]. Daniel saw three of them on one night, and this one on another night. Why? Rabbi Johanan said: Because it is equivalent to the three of them. Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish said: It is superior (yetera). Rabbi Johanan raised an objection to rabbi Simeon ben Lakish: “You, son of man, prophesy and strike one hand against another, (and the sword will be doubled and tripled)” (Ezekiel 21:19). What does Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish do with this? “And…will be doubled.”
[Moses on the four empires again]
Moses saw the kingdoms in their activities. “The camel (hagamal)” (Leviticus 11:4) refers to Babylon. As it is stated: “Thieving daughter of Babylon, happy is he who exacts retribution for what you did to us (gemulekh shegamalta lanu)” (Psalms 137:8). “And the badger [animal]” (Leviticus 11:5) refers to Media. The rabbis and rabbi Judah bar rabbi Simon say: Just as the badger has characteristics of impurity and characteristics of purity, so too, the kingdom of Media would install righteous and wicked rulers. Rabbi Judah ben rabbi Simon said: The last Darius [king of Persia] was the son of Esther, pure from his mother and impure from his father. “And the hare (haarnevet)” (Leviticus 11:6) refers to Greece. Ptolemy’s mother was named Arnevet [Lagos in Greek]. “And the pig” (Leviticus 11:7) refers to Persia.
[Various rabbinic interpretations of Moses’ verses on the empires]
Moses grouped three of them in one verse, and this in one verse. Why?
Rabbi Johanan and rabbi Simeon ben Lakish, Rabbi Johanan said: Because it is equivalent to the three of them. Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish said: It is superior (yetera). Rabbi Johanan raised an objection to rabbi Simeon ben Lakish: “You, son of man, prophesy and strike one hand against another, (and the sword will be doubled and tripled)” (Ezekiel 21:19). What does Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish do with this? “And…will be doubled.”
Rabbi Phinehas and rabbi Hilkiah in the name of rabbi Simon: Of all the prophets, only two publicized it: Asaf and Moses. Asaf said: “The pig from the forest gnaws at it” (Psalms 80:14). Moses said: “And the pig, because it has a split hoof” (Leviticus 11:7). Why is it likened to a pig? It is to say to you: Just as the pig, when it lies down, it displays its hooves and says: ‘See that I am pure,’ so the kingdom of Edom [i.e. of the Romans] engages in self-aggrandizement and extorts and robs, while creating the impression that it is preparing a judicial platform. There was an incident involving a certain governor who would execute the thieves, adulterers, and sorcerers. He leaned over and said to the executioners: “I performed the three crimes in one night.”
Another interpretation: “the camel” (Leviticus 11:4) refers to Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:4), because it praises the Holy One blessed be he. Rabbi Berekiah and rabbi Helbo, in the name of rabbi Ishmael bar Nahman: Every type of praise that David employed on its own, that wicked one included in one verse, as it is stated: “Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise, exalt, and glorify the king of heaven, (for all His actions are truth, his ways are justice, and he is able to humble those who walk in arrogance)” (Daniel 4:34). Nebuchadnezzar says: “Praise.” David says: “Praise the Lord, Jerusalem,” (Psalms 147:12). Nebuchadnezzar says: “Exalt.” David says: “I exalt You, Lord” (Psalms 30:2). Nebuchadnezzar says: “and glorify.” David says: “Bless the Lord, my soul. Lord my God, you are greatly exalted. You are clothed in splendor and glory” (Psalms 104:1). Nebuchadnezzar says: “For all God’s actions are truth.” David says: “for Your kindness and Your truth” (Psalms 138:2). Nebuchadnezzar says: “His ways are justice.” David says: “he will judge peoples with uprightness” (Psalms 96:10). Nebuchadnezzar says: “Those who walk in arrogance (begeva).” David says: “The Lord reigns, he is clothed in grandeur (geut)” (Psalms 93:1). Nebuchadnezzar says: “He is able to humble.” David says: “I will sever all the horns of the wicked” (Psalms 75:11).
[Reiteration of various interpretations regarding the four empires, including reference to legendary interactions between Alexander of Macedon and rabbis]
“And the badger” (Leviticus 11:5) refers to Media. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:5), because it praises the Holy One blessed be he, as it is stated: “So said Cyrus, king of Persia: The Lord, God of the heavens, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth” (Ezra 1:2). “The hare” (Leviticus 11:6) refers to Greece. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:6), because it praises the Holy One blessed be he. When Alexander of Macedonia would see Simeon the Just, he would say: “Blessed is the Lord of Simeon the Just.” “And the pig” (Leviticus 11:7) refers to Edom [i.e. the Romans]. “But it does not chew its cud” (Leviticus 11:7), as it does not praise the Holy One blessed be he. It does not suffice with not praising, but it curses and blasphemes, and says: “Whom do I have in heaven?” (Psalms 73:25).
Another interpretation: “the camel” refers to Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it exalted Daniel, as it is stated: “Daniel was at the gate of the king” (Daniel 2:49). “And the badger” refers to Media. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it exalted Mordechai, as it is stated: “Mordechai was sitting at the gate of the king” (Esther 2:19). “The hare” refers to Greece. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it exalted the righteous.
When Alexander would see Simeon the Just, he would stand on his feet. The Cutheans [i.e. Samaritans, from north of Judah proper] said to him: “Do you stand before the Judeans?” he said to them: “When I go out to war, I see his image, and I am victorious.” “And the pig,” this is Edom [i.e. the Romans]. “But it does not chew its cud,” as it does not exalt the righteous. It does not suffice with not exalting the righteous, but it kills them. That is what is written: “I was angry with my [Israelite god’s] people, I desecrated my inheritance and gave them into your hand; you did not show them any mercy; you set your yoke upon the elder very heavily” (Isaiah 47:6). “My inheritance” refers to Rabbi Akiva and his colleagues.
Another interpretation: “the camel” refers to Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it drew a kingdom after it. “And the badger” refers to Media. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it drew a kingdom after it. “The hare” refers to Greece. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it drew a kingdom after it. “And the pig” refers to Edom [i.e. the Romans]. “But it does not chew its cud,” because it does not draw a kingdom after it. Why is it called a pig (ḥazir)? It is because it will return (shemaḥazeret) the crown to its owner. That is what is written: “Saviors will ascend mount Zion to judge the mountain of Esau, and the kingdom will be to the Lord” (Obadiah 1:21).
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Source of translation: Lexham Bible translation, adapted (link). Sefaria (open source), adapted (link).