Citation with stable link: Philip A. Harland, 'Syrian diasporas: Diodoros and Florus on Eunous of Apameia’s leadership of the slave rebellion on Sicily (mid-first century BCE / second century CE),' Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World, last modified March 25, 2024, https://philipharland.com/Blog/?p=18706.
Ancient authors: Diodoros, Library of History 34/35.2 and 36.5-6, as summarized by Photios (eighth century CE), Bibliotheke, or Collection of Books, codex 244 (link); Florus (ca. 117-138 CE), Epitome 3.19 (link).
Comments: The ethnic dimensions of the first slave rebellion that took place on Sicily around 135-132 BCE (also known as the “First Servile War”) are not always fully recognized. The enslaved on this island, now a province of Rome itself, were primarily foreigners (forced immigrants) engaged in herding and farming, with grain supply to Rome being a central factor.
According to Photios’ summary of Diodoros’ account, the first main leader of the enslaved against the enslavers at the town of Enna – Eunous – was from Apameia in Syria. His wife, also a Syrian, played some role as well, being designated queen. Diodoros emphasizes the importance of the Syrian goddess Atargatis from the homeland within the ideology of this leader. Diodoros’ also characterizes Eunous as a person trained in Magian skill who was therefore able to perform wonders to inspire his followers. The conclusion to Photios’ summary also underlines the ethnic dimensions in clarifying that Eunous, as king, was designated “Antiochos” and that his followers were called “Syrians.” This points to an obvious continuing connection between forced migrants in the diaspora, like Eunous, and their homelands. A second leader at Enna, Kleon from Cilicia in Anatolia is also discussed. Ultimately Roman armies put down the rebellion.
Then Photios’ summary goes on to yet another slave rebellion (the so-called Second Servile War) around Segesta and Lilybaion (Lilybaeum), which was led by another Cilician slave, named Athenion (ca. 104-100 BCE). Florus’ account more briefly sketches out only the activities of Enous at Enna and Athenion. Also clear in both accounts is the tendency for Roman authorities and elites generally to label any unsanctioned violence by foreigners as “banditry.”
Works consulted: K.R. Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 BC-70 BC (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989) (link).
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[For Diodoros’ preceding discussion of Judeans, go to this link]
Diodoros, Library of History
[Eunous the wonder-worker and Magian from Syrian Apameia leads a rebellion at the town of Enna, Sicily]
(34/35.2 = Photios’ summary) When the affairs of Sicily, after the overthrow of Carthage, had remained successful and prosperous for the space of sixty years, war with the slaves broke out for the following reasons. The Sicilians, through the enjoyment of a long peace, grew very rich, and bought up an abundance of slaves. The slaves, being driven in droves like so many herds of cattle from the different places where they were bred and brought up, were branded with certain marks burned on their bodies. Those that were young, they used for shepherds, others for such services as they had occasion. But their masters were very strict and severe with them, and took no care to provide either necessary food or clothing for them, so that most of them were forced to rob and steal, to get these necessities. As a result, all places were full of slaughters and murders, as if an army of thieves and bandits (lēstai) had been dispersed all over the island. The governors of the provinces, to tell the truth, did what they could to suppress them. However, they did not dare punish them, because the masters, who possessed the slaves, were rich and powerful. Therefore every governor was forced to connive at the thefts and rapines that were committed in the province. For many of the landowners were Roman knights, and because they judged the accusations brought against the governors for their conduct in the provinces, they were a terror to the governors themselves.
The slaves therefore being in this distress, and vilely beaten and scourged beyond all reason, were now resolved not to bear it any longer. Therefore, meeting together from time to time as they had opportunity, they consulted how to free themselves from the yoke of slavery they faced until finally they really accomplished what they had previously agreed upon. (5) There was a Syrian, born in the city of Apameia, who was a slave of Antigenes of Enna [later on we find out his name is Eunous]. He was a Magian (magos) and wonder-worker (teratourgos) who pretended to predict future events which were revealed to him, as he claimed, by the gods in his dreams. He deceived many people using this technique. Then he proceeded further, and not only predicted future happenings, revealed to him in dreams, but also pretended that he saw the gods when he was awake, and they declared to him what was to come to pass. And though these were tricks that he played, yet by chance many of the things afterwards proved to be true. The predictions that were not fulfilled were ignored, but those which did happen were everywhere applauded, so that he grew more and more celebrated. By some trick or other, he used to breath flames of fire out of his mouth as from a burning lamp, and so would prophesy as though he had been at that time inspired by Apollo. For he put fire with some combustible matter as fuel into a nut-shell or some such thing bored through on both sides. Then, putting it into his mouth and forcing his breath upon it, there would issue out both sparks and flames of fire. Before the rebellion of the slaves, this man boasted that the Syrian goddess [i.e. Atargatis] had appeared to him, and told him that he should reign, and this he declared not only to others but often to his own master.
As this became a common subject of laughter, Antigenes was so taken with the joke and the ridiculous conceit of the man, that he took Eunous (or Eunous) – for that was his name – with him to feasts and dinners. With several questions being put to Eunous concerning his future kingdom, he was asked how he would treat each person who was there present at the table. He readily went on with his story and told them that he would be very kind to his masters. Like wonder-worker, he made all the guests laugh. At that point, some of them rewarded him with large helpings from the table and asked him to remember their kindness when he came to be king. But all this joking finally really did end in his advancement to be king, and those who at the feasts by way of ridicule had been kind to him, he rewarded in earnest.
[Origins and incidents of the “rebellion” at Enna, Sicily]
But the rebellion began in the following way: (10) There was one Damophilos of Enna, a man of great wealth, but of a proud and arrogant disposition. This man above all measure was cruel and severe to his slaves, and his wife Megallis tried to surpass her husband in all kinds of cruelty and inhumanity towards the slaves. The slaves, who had been so cruelly used, were enraged by this like wild beasts, and plotted together to rise in arms and cut the throats of their masters. To this end they consulted Eunous, and asked him whether the gods would give them success in their designs. He encouraged them and declared that they would prosper in their enterprise. He talked about wonders, as was his usual manner, and told them to be speedy in their execution. Therefore, after they had gathered a body of four hundred slaves, at the first opportunity they suddenly armed themselves and broke into the city of Enna, led by their captain Eunous, who used his ability to do wonders to breathe fire out of his mouth. Then entering the houses, they engaged in such great slaughter that they did not even spare the youngest children, but plucked them violently from their mother’s breasts and dashed them against the ground. It cannot be expressed how insultingly and filthily, for the satisfying of their lusts, they used men’s wives in the very presence of their husbands. These people were joined by a multitude of the slaves who were in the city. They first executed their rage and cruelty upon their own masters, and then turned to murdering others.
In the mean time, Eunous heard that Damophilos and his wife were in an orchard near the city. Therefore, he sent some of his rabble there, who brought them back with their hands tied behind their backs, taunting them as they passed along with much mistreatment. But they declared that they would be kind in every respect to their daughter, because of her pity and compassion towards the slaves, and her readiness always to be helpful to them. This showed that the behaviour of the slaves towards others arose, not from their own savage (ōmotēs) nature, but from a desire to have revenge for the wrongs they had suffered previously. The men that were sent for Damophilos and Megallis his wife brought them to the city and into the theatre, where the entire crowd of rebels (apostatai) was assembled. There Damophilos pleaded earnestly for his life and moved many with what he said. But Hermeias and Zeuxis denounced him with many bitter accusations and called him a cheat and deceiver. Then without waiting to hear the decision of the people concerning him, the one ran him through with a sword and the other cut off his head with an axe.
Then they made Eunous king, not for his courage or skill in warfare, but merely due to his wonder-working, and because he was the leader of the rebellion. His name also seemed to be a good omen in that he would be “kind” (eunous) to his subjects. (15) When he had therefore been made general, with absolute power to order and dispose of all things as he pleased, an assembly was called, and he put all the prisoners from Enna to death except those that were skilful in making of weapons, whom he shackled and set to work. As for Megallis, he delivered her up to the will of the women slaves to take their revenge on her as they thought fit. After they had whipped and tormented her, they threw her down a steep cliff. And Eunous himself killed his own master Antigenes and Python. Finally, putting a crown on his head and graced with all the emblems of royalty, he caused his wife, who was a Syrian from the same city, to be called queen, and chose such as he judged to be most prudent to be his councillors.
[Achaios and clashes with Roman army]
Among these was one Achaios by name, and an Achaian by birth, a wise man and a good soldier. Within the space of three days he got together over six thousand men, armed with what they could by any way or means lay their hands upon. He was joined by others, who were all furnished either with axes, hatches, slings, bills, or stakes sharpened and burned at one end, or with spits. With these he ravaged and plundered the entire country. Finally, after he had been joined by an infinite number of slaves, he grew to such power and boldness as to engage in a war with the Roman generals, and often defeated them in battle, by overpowering them with the number of his men, because he now had with him above ten thousand men.
[Kleon from Cilicia joins forces with Eunous]
In the mean time, a Cilician called Kleon instigated another defection of the slaves, and now all were hoping that this unruly rabble would come to blows one with another, and so Sicily would be rid of them through their mutual slaughters and destruction of each other. But contrary to all men’s hopes and expectations, they joined forces together. Kleon followed the commands of Eunous in every respect, and served his prince as general, having five thousand of his own soldiers. Thirty days had now passed since the first beginning of this rebellion. At this point the slaves fought a battle with Lucius Hypsaeus, who had come from Rome and commanded eight thousand Sicilians. In this fight the rebels won the day. They were then twenty thousand in number, and very soon afterwards their army increased to two hundred thousand men. And although they fought against the Romans themselves, yet they often came off as conquerors, and were very seldom defeated.
When news of this spread around, a rebellion was started at Rome by one hundred and fifty slaves. A similar situation happened in Attica involving one thousand slaves, as well as at Delos and many other places. But the magistrates of the various communities, to prevent the mischief from going further, made a quick response, and promptly attacked the slaves, and killed them all. So those that remained and were ready to break out into rebellion were reduced to more sound and sober thoughts.
[Rupilius and the Roman army defeat the rebels]
(20) But in Sicily the disorders increased more and more. Cities were taken, their inhabitants were enslaved, and many armies were defeated by the rebels, until Rupilius the Roman general recovered Tauromenion [modern Taormina]. The besieged had been reduced to such an extremity of famine by a sharp and close siege, that they began to eat their own children, and the men their wives. Finally, they butchered one another for food. There Rupilius captured Komanos the brother of Kleon, who was endeavouring to escape out of the city while it was besieged. Finally, Sarapion, a Syrian, betrayed the citadel, and all the fugitives fell into his hands. Rupilius had them scourged and thrown over a cliff. He marched from there to Enna, and by a long siege reduced it to such straits, that there was no hope left for anyone to escape. After slaying Kleon their general, who had made an attack from the city and fought like a hero, he exposed his body to open view. Soon afterwards the city likewise was betrayed into his hands, which otherwise could never have been taken by force because of the natural strength of the place.
As for Eunous, he fled like a coward with six hundred of his guards to the top of certain high cliffs, where those that were with him, foreseeing their inevitable ruin (for Rupilius pursued then closely), cut one another’s throats. But Eunous the wonder-worker and king out of fear hid himself in some caves, which he had discovered for that purpose. He was dragged out of there with four others of his gang: his cook, his barber, the man who rubbed him in the bath and the jester at his banquets. Finally he was thrown into prison, and there consumed by lice, and so ended his days at Morgantina by a death worthy of the former wickedness of his life. Rupilius afterwards with a small body of men marched all over Sicily, and presently cleared the country of groups of bandits (lēstēria).
[Syrians – Ethnic dimension of the rebellion underlined]
This Eunous king of the rebels called himself “Antiochos” and all his followers “Syrians.” . . . [omitted sections].
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[Athenion the Cilician and expert in astral-divination leads a rebellion around Segesta and Lilybaeum]
(36.5 ) After this, all the slaves in the territories of Segesta and Lilybaion were likewise infected with this desire of rebellion. Their leader was one Athenion, a courageous man and a Cilician by descent. This man, who was the steward of two rich brothers and had expertise in astral-divination, first persuaded the slaves, over whom he had some sort of command, to join with him, to the number of two hundred. Afterwards he added those who lived in the neighbouring districts, so that in five days time there were gathered above one thousand. They made him king, and placed a crown on his head.
Athenion resolved to order matters and affairs in a manner very different from the other rebels. He did not indiscriminately receive everyone who came to him, but only those with strong and healthy bodies, who would make the best soldiers. The rest he forced to continue in their previous occupations, and everyone in his own place diligently to apply himself to the duty incumbent upon him. By this means he was able to bring in plenty of provisions for his soldiers. He pretended that by the stars the gods foretold that he should become the king of the whole of Sicily, and therefore he was to refrain from plundering the country, or destroying the cattle and crops, as they all belonged to him.
Finally, after getting together above ten thousand men, he was so daring as to besiege Lilybaion, a city considered to be impregnable. But since he failed to make any headway, he abandoned the enterprise, pretending he was commanded to do so by the gods. The gods warned him that, if they continued the siege, they would certainly fall into some sudden misfortune. Accordingly, while he was preparing to withdraw from the city, a fleet of Mauretanians entered the harbour, who had been sent to the assistance of the citizens of Lilybaion. Their commander, called Gomon, surprised Athenion’s army by night, as they were leaving the siege and marching off. Gomon killed a great number of them and wounded as many others, before returning with his men to the city. The rebels were astonished, that Athenion’s prophecy from reading the stars had been fulfilled in this way.
(36.6) At the same time great disorders, and an Iliad of calamities, spread over the whole of Sicily. Not only slaves, but also impoverished freemen committed all sorts of plundering and lawless actions. They shamelessly killed all they met, whether slaves or free, so that none might be left to inform on them. As a result, the inhabitants of the cities felt that they scarcely owned what was with them within the walls. But as for that which was outside, it was all lost, falling as prey to the lawless rule of violence. Many other outrageous actions were arrogantly committed throughout Sicily, by many different persons.
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Florus, Epitome (ca. 117-138 CE)
[Syrian slave Eunous as leader of the rebellion]
(3.19) . . . This land [Sicily], so rich in wheat, a province lying, as it were, at our very doors, was occupied by large estates in the possession of Roman citizens. The numerous prisons for slaves employed in tilling the soil and gangs of cultivators who worked in chains provided the forces for the war. A certain Syrian named Eunous (the seriousness of our defeats causes his name to be remembered), counterfeiting an inspired frenzy and waving his dishevelled hair in honour of the Syrian goddess [Atargatis], incited the slaves to arms and freedom on the pretence of a command from the gods. (5) In order to prove that he was acting under divine inspiration, he hid a nut in his mouth which he had filled with sulphur and fire and, by breathing gently, sent out a flame as he spoke. This miracle first of all collected two thousand men from those whom he encountered, but presently, when the prisons had been broken open by force of arms, he formed an army of more than sixty thousand men. Adorning himself (in order to fill up the cup of his wickedness) with the insignia of royalty, he destroyed fortresses, villages and towns with pitiable destruction. No, even the camps of the praetors were captured, which is the most disgraceful thing that can occur in war. Nor will I hesitate from mentioning the names of these commanders, who were Manlius, Lentulus, Piso and Hypsaeus. Thus those who should have been hauled away by the overseers, themselves pursued praetorian generals fleeing from the battle-field. Finally, punishment was inflicted upon them under the leadership of Perperna. After defeating them and finally besieging them at Enna, Perperna reduced them by famine as effectually as by a plague and punished the surviving bandits (latrones) with fetters, chains and the cross. He was content with an ovation for his victory over them, so that he might not undermine the dignity of a triumph by the mention of slaves.
[Cilician Athenion as leader of the rebellion]
Scarcely had the island recovered itself, when, in the praetorship of Servilius, the command suddenly passed from the hands of a Syrian into those of a Cilician. A shepherd, Athenion [the Cilician is named Kleon there, although perhaps there were several Cilicians involved], having murdered his master, released the slaves from their prison and formed them into an organized force. (10) Himself arrayed in a purple robe, carrying a silver sceptre and crowned like a king, he collected an army quite as large as that of his fanatical predecessor. On the pretext of avenging him [Eunous] and plundering villages, towns and fortresses, Athenios enthusiastically vented his fury with even greater violence upon the slaves than upon their masters, treating them as renegades. He also defeated praetorian armies and captured the camps of Servilius and Lucullus. But Titus Aquilius, following the example of Perperna, reduced the enemy to extremities by cutting off their supplies and easily destroyed their forces in battle when they were reduced by starvation. They would have surrendered, had they not, in their fear of punishment, preferred voluntary death. The penalty could not be inflicted upon their leader, although he fell alive into their hands because, while the crowd was quarrelling about his apprehension, the prey was torn to pieces in the hands of the disputants.
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Source of translations: Andrew Smith of Attalus.org, public domain, adapted. E.S. Forster, Lucius Annaeus Florus, Epitome of Roman History. Cornelius Nepos LCL (Cambridge, MA: CUP, 1929), public domain, adapted by Harland.