Category Archives: (01) Non-dominant (“barbarian”) perspectives on peoples (except Judeans)

Arabians and Judeans: Jubilees, Molon, and Josephos on identifying the Ishmaelites (second century BCE on)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (05) Judeans (Jews) and Jesus adherents as participants in ethnographic culture, (d) Eastern peoples, Alexander Polyhistor (Greek), Apollonios Molon of Rhodes (Greek), Arabians, Egyptians, ethnicity in the ancient world, Eusebius (Greek), Idumeans / Edomites, Itureans (subset of Arabians), Josephos / Flavius Josephus (Judean), Jubilees author (Judean), Judeans / Jews / Israelites / Hebrews, Nabateans (subset of Arabians) on May 18, 2023 by Philip A. Harland.

Axumite perspectives: Inscription by the king of Axum on the Ethiopian and Arabian peoples he conquered (late-second or early-third century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Inscriptions / epigraphy, (b) Southern peoples, Axumites (subset of Ethiopians), Ethiopians / Kushites / Nubians, ethnicity in the ancient world on April 15, 2023 by Philip A. Harland.

Babylonian perspectives: Bel-re’ushu / Berossos on the origins of civilization (late fourth century BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), Alexander Polyhistor (Greek), ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Apollodoros of Athens (Greek), Athenaios (Greek), Babylonians / Chaldeans, Diokles (Greek), ethnicity in the ancient world, Eusebius (Greek), Josephos / Flavius Josephus (Judean), Megasthenes (Greek), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on February 6, 2023 by Philip A. Harland.

Babylonian wisdom: Iamblichos on Mesopotamian legends and his training in Magian skills (mid-second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (04) Greeks on wise "barbarians" and noble primitives, Babylonians / Chaldeans, ethnicity in the ancient world, Persians / Iranians / Magians, Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on May 20, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Egyptian perspectives: Chairemon on Egyptian temple functionaries and the astral significance of gods (first century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Southern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Chairemon (Egyptian), Egyptians, ethnicity in the ancient world, Eusebius (Greek), Porphyry (Syrian) on May 9, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Egyptian perspectives: Isidoros’ hymns in praise of the goddess Hermouthis and legendary pharaohs (early first century BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Southern peoples, (d) Eastern peoples, Egyptians, Greeks (broad category), Isidoros (Egyptian), Lycians / Termelians (in southern Asia Minor), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians, Thracians (broad category) on February 20, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Egyptian perspectives: Manetho on “Egyptian Matters” (early third century BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Southern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Egyptians, ethnicity in the ancient world, Hyksos (in Egypt), Manetho / pseudo-Manetho (Egyptian) on June 25, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

Egyptian perspectives: Memphites on the goddess Isis and the origins of civilization among Egyptians (first century BCE on)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Inscriptions / epigraphy, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Diodoros of Sicily (Greek), Egyptians, ethnicity in the ancient world, Greeks (broad category) on March 18, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Egyptian perspectives: Oracles of the Lamb and the Potter on Greco-Macedonians and other foreigners (third-second centuries BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (c) Papyri / documents on paper, Egyptians, Greeks (broad category), Lamb (Egyptian), Macedonians or Greco-Macedonians, Medes (often interchanged with Persians), Persians / Iranians / Magians, Potter (Egyptian), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on February 28, 2023 by Philip A. Harland.

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (02) Greek and Roman perspectives and stereotypes on other peoples, (a) Northern peoples, Amazons (legendary subset of Scythians), Cassiodorus (Goth), Getians / Dacians (northern Thracians), Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Huns, Jordanes (Goth), Scythians / Pontic peoples (broad category), Thracians (broad category), Vandals on December 30, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

Libyan perspectives: Apuleius self-identifies as a barbarian and Numidian / Gaetulian (mid-second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Southern peoples, (d) Eastern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Apuleius (Numidian / Gaetulian), ethnicity in the ancient world, Gaitulians / Gaetulians (in northern Africa), Numidians (subset of Libyans), Persians / Iranians / Magians on October 8, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

Libyan perspectives: Cornelius Fronto self-identifies as a “barbarian” and Libyan nomad (mid-second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (b) Southern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Cornelius Fronto (Numidian / Roman), ethnicity in the ancient world, Libyans / Africans, Scythians / Pontic peoples (broad category) on October 8, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

Libyan perspectives: Juba of Numidia on ethnographic matters (late first century BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Athenaios (Greek), Egyptians, Indians / Brahmans, Juba II (Numidian / Berber), Libyans / Africans, Lydians / Maionians (in Asia Minor), Maurians / Moors (subset of Libyans), Persians / Iranians / Magians, Phrygians (in Asia Minor), Pliny the Elder (Roman), Stephanos of Byzantion (Greek), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on April 25, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (02) Greek and Roman perspectives and stereotypes on other peoples, (09) Gender, sexuality, and ethnographic discourses, (d) Eastern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Ephoros (Greek), ethnicity in the ancient world, Herodotos (Greek), Klearchos / Clearchus (Greek), Lydians / Maionians (in Asia Minor), Xanthos of Lydia (Greek) on March 13, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Phoenician perspectives: Philo of Byblos on “Phoenician Matters” (early second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (d) Eastern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, Egyptians, ethnicity in the ancient world, Pherekydes of Syros island (Greek), Philo of Byblos (Phoenician), Phoenicians / Canaanites, Sanchuniathon (Phoenician), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on May 26, 2024 by Philip A. Harland.

Syrian perspectives: Lucian of Samosata on The Syrian Goddess in full (mid-second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (d) Eastern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, ethnicity in the ancient world, Greeks (broad category), Lucian of Samosata (Syrian / Assyrian), Phoenicians / Canaanites, Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on July 7, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

Syrian perspectives: Lucian self-identifies as “barbarian” and “Assyrian” (mid-second century CE)

Posted in (01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans), (d) Eastern peoples, ancient ethnography / ethnographic culture, ethnicity in the ancient world, Lucian of Samosata (Syrian / Assyrian), Syrians / Assyrians / Aramaians on October 10, 2022 by Philip A. Harland.

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(01) Non-dominant ("barbarian") perspectives on peoples (except Judeans)

Arabians and Judeans: Jubilees, Molon, and Josephos on identifying the Ishmaelites (second century BCE on)

Axumite perspectives: Inscription by the king of Axum on the Ethiopian and Arabian peoples he conquered (late-second or early-third century CE)

Babylonian perspectives: Bel-re’ushu / Berossos on the origins of civilization (late fourth century BCE)

Babylonian wisdom: Iamblichos on Mesopotamian legends and his training in Magian skills (mid-second century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Chairemon on Egyptian temple functionaries and the astral significance of gods (first century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Isidoros' hymns in praise of the goddess Hermouthis and legendary pharaohs (early first century BCE)

Egyptian perspectives: Manetho on "Egyptian Matters" (early third century BCE)

Egyptian perspectives: Memphites on the goddess Isis and the origins of civilization among Egyptians (first century BCE on)

Egyptian perspectives: Oracles of the Lamb and the Potter on Greco-Macedonians and other foreigners (third-second centuries BCE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Apuleius self-identifies as a barbarian and Numidian / Gaetulian (mid-second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Cornelius Fronto self-identifies as a "barbarian" and Libyan nomad (mid-second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Juba of Numidia on ethnographic matters (late first century BCE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Phoenician perspectives: Philo of Byblos on "Phoenician Matters" (early second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian of Samosata on The Syrian Goddess in full (mid-second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian self-identifies as "barbarian" and "Assyrian" (mid-second century CE)

(02) Greek and Roman perspectives and stereotypes on other peoples

Aitolians: Ephoros on their origins and invincibility (mid-fourth century BCE)

Aitolians: Thucydides on barbarous Greeks (late fifth century BCE)

Amazons, Tibarenians, and Mossynoikians: Apollonios of Rhodes on a voyage to the Kolchians (third century BCE)

Amazons: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's relationship with Thalestris (first century CE)

Amazons: Strabo on their customs and northern location (late first century CE)

Arabians and Aramaians: Poseidonios on relations between eastern peoples (first century BCE)

Arabians and Erembians: Poseidonios, Strabo and others on obscure peoples mentioned by Homer (early first century CE)

Arabians and Nabateans: Strabo on their supposedly uncivilized sexual and burial customs (early first century CE)

Arabians, Trogodytes, and peoples around the Red Sea: Eratosthenes, Artemidoros, and Strabo on their locations and customs (early first century CE)

Arabians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on peoples of Arabia Felix on the eastern coast of the Red Sea (second-first centuries BCE)

Arabians: Ammianus Marcellinus on the customs of Saracens (late fourth century CE)

Arabians: Diodoros on Nabatean customs and freedom (mid-first century BCE)

Arabians: Herodotos on deities and lifestyle (late fifth century BCE)

Arabians: Strabo and Josephos on Itureans as a supposed bandit-people (first century CE)

Arabians: Strabo and others on Aelius Gallus' expeditions and the imperial purposes of ethnographic knowledge (early first century CE)

Arianians, Gedrosians, and Karmanians: Eratosthenes and Strabo on their locations and some customs (early first century CE)

Arkadians: Polybios theorizes environment and peoplehood (second century BCE)

Armenians: Kyrsilos and Strabo on a Thessalian origin story, on worship of Anahita and on supposed sacred prostitution (early first century CE)

Asian Albanians, Iberians, Mardians and others: Demodamas and Pliny the Elder on peoples in the Caucasus region and further east (third century BCE / first century CE)

Assyrians, Babylonians, and surrounding peoples: Strabo on their customs (early first century CE)

Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Celts, and others: The Cicero brothers on the nature and effectiveness of divination (mid-first century BCE)

Assyrians, Medes and Persians: Ktesias on Persian Matters via Diodoros and Photios (early fourth century BCE)

Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Macedonians, and Parthians: Polyhistor, Bion and Agathias on a succession of empires (mid-first century BCE on)

Assyrians: Trogus on the achievements of Ninos and Semiramis and on the extreme effeminacy of Sardanapalus (first century BCE)

Atlantians: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on supposed Atlantian stories about the earliest kings / gods (third / mid-first century BCE)

Babylonian wisdom: Diodoros on Chaldeans' astrology and divination (mid-first century BCE)

Babylonians and Assyrians: Herodotos on legendary queens and outstanding customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Baktrians, Sogdians, and some "completely barbarous" eastern peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Baliaridians and other barbarian peoples off Iberia: Diodoros on their paradoxical customs (mid-first century BCE)

Barbaria's inhabitants, Arabians, and Indians: Anonymous author on trade and peoples on the Erythraian sea all the way to eastern India (mid-first century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Barbarians and Greeks: Dionysios theorizes the blurry lines (late first century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Eratosthenes challenges the dichotomy (third century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Thucydides theorizes the shift from barbarian banditry to settled civilization (late fifth century BCE)

Barbarians: Plutarch on the bad influence of barbarian slaves on Greek children (early second century CE)

Bithynians, Mariandynians, Paphlagonians, and others: Strabo on temple-states and peoples near his Pontic homeland (early first century CE)

Boiotians: Ephoros on the superiority of Boiotia and on a Phoenician connection (mid-fourth century BCE)

Britons and Iernians (Irish): Julius Caesar, Pytheas, and Strabo on customs including eating human flesh (early first century CE)

Britons: Dio Cassius on the wild lifestyle and banditry of Maiatians and Kaledonians (early third century CE)

Britons: Diodoros on a simple way of life (mid-first century BCE)

Britons: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Britons: Tacitus (late first century CE)

Britons: Tacitus and Dio Cassius on the revolt of the Icenians and Trinobantians led by Boudicca (early second century)

Cappadocians: Strabo on their temple-states and supposed desire for subservience (early first century CE)

Carians, Galatians, Halizonians, and others: Ephoros and Apollodoros of Athens on Anatolian peoples (mid-fourth century BCE on)

Carians: Strabo on long-term interactions with Greeks and on "Carianizing" (early first century CE)

Carthaginians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Carthaginians: Plato, Aristotle, Polybios and others on their character and communal organization (fourth century BCE on)

Celtiberians, Iberians, and Lusitanians: Diodoros on their customs and military skill (mid-first century BCE)

Celts and Germans: Diodoros, Dionysios, Strabo, and Dio on distinguishing them (first centuries BCE and CE)

Celts and Germans: Plutarch’s ethnographic digressions in the Lives (early second century CE)

Celts and Ligurians: Strabo on peoples south of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts, Iberians, and Libyans: Polybios on the mixed composition of Hannibal of Carthage's army and on military equipment (second century BCE)

Celts: Anyte and Parthenios on wife abductions during the Galatian invasion (third-first century BCE)

Celts: Appian of Alexandria on their character and on ambassadorial relations with Romans (second century CE)

Celts: Cicero on Gauls and the link between imperial conquest and negative stereotypes (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Cicero's ethnic invective against Gauls in defending Fonteius (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Dio Cassius on spirited and untrustworthy Galatians (early third century CE)

Celts: Diodoros on Galatian origins, "savage" customs and invasions of Italy and Greece (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Celts: Julius Caesar on Druids and supposed human sacrifice among Gauls (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on legends of the Gauls' fourth century BCE migrations and an invasion of Rome (late first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on the Galatian invasion of Asia Minor and the Roman army's subsequent victory, ca. 189 BCE (late first century BCE)

Celts: Phylarchos and Poseidonios on banqueting and violent customs (first century BCE)

Celts: Pliny the Elder on medicine, rites and Magian skill among Druids (first century CE)

Celts: Pliny the Elder on three Roman subdivisions of Gaul (first century CE)

Celts: Polybios on the Celtic encounter with Rome and on his method in dealing with distant peoples (second century BCE)

Celts: Priene inscription on Galatian "impiety" and "savagery" during the invasion (ca. 278-270 BCE)

Celts: Strabo on peoples northwest of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts: Tacitus on the revolt of Boians under Marricus (early second century CE)

Celts: Thyatira inscription for a son rescued by the god Apollo out from under "the mob of Galatians" (276 BCE)

Celts: Timagenes of Alexandria and Ammianus Marcellinus on Celtic origins and customs (first century BCE / fourth century CE)

Celts: Trogus on Gallic invasions and character (first century BCE)

Cilicians: Plutarch on foreign "pirates" threatening Roman ways (early-second century CE)

Cilicians: Roman authorities, Cicero, and Florus on a population of "pirates" (100-67 BCE)

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Cretans, Spartans, Carthaginians, and Romans: Polybios on superior and inferior societal organization (second century BCE)

Cretans: Athenians and Rhodians on suppressing supposed bandit peoples (fifth-third centuries BCE)

Cretans: Diodoros on Cretan (Greek) contributions to civilization (mid-first century BCE)

Cretans: Ephoros on civic organization and customs (mid-fourth century BCE)

Daans, Kadousians, Hyrkanians, and Sakians: Strabo on peoples east of the Caspian Sea (first century CE)

Dacians and Istrians: Trogus on peoples west of the Black Sea (first century BCE)

Dyrbaians: Ktesias on an extremely just people between Baktria and India (early fourth century BCE)

Egyptian and Persian wisdom: Plutarch on the "barbarian-lover" Herodotos (early second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plutarch on wise Egyptian priests and on Isis and Osiris (early second century CE)

Egyptians, Lydians, Cilicians, and other peoples: Kratinos, Aristophanes, Suetonius and others on "Egyptianizing" and other ethnicizing stereotypes (sixth century BCE on)

Egyptians, Taurians, and Celts: Cicero's Philus engages in ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Achilles Tatius and Dio Cassius on man-eating cowherds / bandits (second-third century CE)

Egyptians: Aelian on Egyptian views and customs about animals and animal-worship (late second century CE)

Egyptians: Ammianus on their "dark" complexion and insubordinate behaviour (late fourth century CE)

Egyptians: Ammonios' papyrus letter on "inhuman Egyptians" (third century CE)

Egyptians: Attic vase paintings, Isocrates and others on king Bousiris and human sacrifice (fifth century BCE on)

Egyptians: Cicero on superstition and animal-worship (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Dio Cassius' speech by Octavian on the "effeminate" Antony (early third century CE)

Egyptians: Diodoros on the origins of civilization and on Egyptian views (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Hekataios of Miletos on encountering Theban priests (late sixth century BCE)

Egyptians: Herodotos on customs and legendary kings (fifth century BCE)

Egyptians: Lykeas of Naukratis on Egyptian kings and meals (first century CE or earlier)

Egyptians: Strabo on animal gods and accompanying rites (early first century CE)

Ethiopians and Arabians: Nonnosos on Saracens and on a hairy people (sixth century CE)

Ethiopians and Thracians: Xenophon of Kolophon theorizes human representations of gods (sixth century BCE)

Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on lifestyles and diets in the extreme south (second-first centuries BCE)

Ethiopians: Alexander Polyhistor on Memnonians as wild and war-like (mid-first century BCE)

Ethiopians: Aristokreon on a people ruled by a dog (mid-third century BCE)

Ethiopians: Dalion on paradoxical peoples (mid-third century BCE)

Ethiopians: Diodoros on their claims, appearance, and customs (mid-first century BCE)

Ethiopians: Herodotos on southern peoples at the ends of the earth (mid-fifth century BCE)

Ethiopians: Strabo on a hard lifestyle in a harsh environment (early first century CE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Europeans, Africans, and Asians: Pliny the Elder on the framework for his ethnographic survey and on the superiority of Europeans (first century CE)

Europeans, Asians, and Greeks: Aristotle on hierarchies, slaves, and environmental determinism (fourth century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Germans and Sarmatians: Josephos on impulsive and violent northerners (late first century CE)

Germans and Scythians: Seneca on enduring hardships and on anger (first century CE)

Germans, Britons, and Indians: Strabo on travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of information (early first century CE)

Germans, Suebians, Marcomannians, and Kimbrians: Poseidonios and Strabo on customs and rumours about the tides (first century BCE)

Germans: Appian of Alexandria on large, savage and spirited Germans (second century CE)

Germans: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Germans: Philo of Alexandria on fighting the tides (first century CE)

Germans: Tacitus on the revolt of the Batavians and on Batavian character (early second century CE)

Germans: Tacitus' Germania in full (late first century CE)

Getians, Dacians, and Scythians: Strabo (early first century CE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Getians: Hellanikos and others on Zamolxis (fifth century BCE on)

Hyperboreans: Herodotos, Hekataios, Diodoros, and others on a legendary northern people (four century BCE to third century CE)

Iapygians and Tarentines: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Iberians and others: Avienus on a journey along the southern coast of Spain (mid-fourth century CE)

Iberians, Albanians and others of the Caucasus area: Strabo (early first century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria on Viriathus and resistance by Lusitanians (second century CE)

Iberians: Artemidoros, Poseidonios, Strabo, and others (second century BCE to first century CE)

Iberians: Diodoros on Viriathus and the Lusitanians' resistance to Roman rule (mid-first century BCE)

Iberians: Trogus on their extreme courage (first century BCE)

Ichthyophagians: Nearchos and Agatharchides on Fish-eaters around the Arabian Sea (fourth-first centuries BCE)

Idumeans and Judeans: Ptolemy the historian on the difference (late first century BCE)

Idumeans: Josephos on the Edomites' origins and relations with Judeans (late first century CE)

Illyrians, Pannonians, and other peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Illyrians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Illyrians: Theopompos on banquets (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians and peoples on the way: Diodoros on Alexander's conquests (mid-first century BCE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on "unbelievable" peoples (first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, and Celts: Dio of Prusa critiques foreign imports and luxury (late first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, and Iberians: Poseidonios and Strabo on Eudoxos of Kyzikos' expeditions (first centuries BCE and CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, Celts, and Scythians: Ephoros on a four-fold division of the known world (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians, Taprobanians, and Serians: Pliny the Elder on numerous peoples and customs in India and beyond (first century CE)

Indians: Aelian on Indian views and customs about animals (late second century CE)

Indians: Bardaisan of Edessa on Indian ambassadors' tales and the Brahmans (early third century CE)

Indians: Curtius Rufus on the environment and the peoples (first century CE)

Indians: Dio of Prusa on the Indians' superior mode of life (late first century CE)

Indians: Diodoros on environment, customs and social organization (mid-first century BCE)

Indians: Eratosthenes and Strabo on legendary Nysaians and Sibians (third century BCE / early first century CE)

Indians: Herodotos on eastern peoples at the ends of the earth (mid-fifth century BCE)

Indians: Hierokles on visiting the Brahmans (fifth century CE or earlier)

Indians: Iamboulos and Diodoros on a utopian island beyond India (mid-first century BCE)

Indians: Ktesias on Indian Matters via Photios, Pliny the Elder, and Aelian (early fourth century BCE)

Indians: Megasthenes, Aristoboulos, Onesikritos, and Strabo on Indian customs and on Brahmans (fourth century BCE-early first century CE)

Indians: Nearchos, Megasthenes, and Arrian (fourth century BCE-second century CE)

Indians: Phylarchos on roots for sexual restraint (early second century BCE)

Indians: Skylax of Karyanda, a Persian imperial ethnographic expedition, and paradoxical peoples (late sixth century BCE)

Isaurians: Ammianus Marcellinus on their incursions and banditry (late fourth century CE)

Isaurians: Diodoros on their bravery and noble death (mid-first century BCE)

Italic peoples: Antiochos of Syracuse on migrations of peoples to and within Italy (late fifth century BCE)

Italic peoples: Cato, Livy, and Florus on Sabines, Samnites, and others (early second century BCE on)

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos' Against Apion in full (late first century CE)

Judean, Persian, and Indian wisdom: Philo on the freedom of Essenes and Kalanos (early first century CE)

Judeans and Celts: Various authors on Claudius' actions against foreigners in the 40s CE (second / third centuries CE

Judeans, "Asiatics", and Greeks: Cicero's ethnic invective aimed at eastern witnesses against Flaccus (mid-first century BCE)

Judeans, Africans, and Germans: Columella on the limits of environmental theory (first century CE)

Judeans, Egyptians, and Magians: Various authors on Tiberius' actions against foreign practices 17-19 CE (first-third centuries CE)

Judeans, Egyptians, and others: Seneca on the "superstitions" of foreigners (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, and Egyptians: Epiktetos engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Celts, Scythians and others: Plutarch on the "barbarian" origins of fearing the gods, or "superstition" (early second century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Indians, and others: Porphyry of Tyre on abstinence from meat (third century CE)

Judeans: Agatharchides of Knidos on the Sabbath (second century BCE)

Judeans: Dio Cassius on customs and Roman elite attitudes (early third century CE)

Judeans: Hekataios, pseudo-Hekataios and Diodoros on Judean origins and migration with the exodus (first century BCE)

Judeans: Kleomedes denigrates Epicurus and Judeans (second century CE)

Judeans: Manetho, Chairemon, and Lysimachos on an alternative Exodus (third century BCE on)

Judeans: Mnaseas, Poseidonios, Apollonios Molon, Diodoros, Apion, and Damokritos on the statue of a donkey and on human sacrifice (second century BCE and on)

Judeans: Pliny the Elder and Julius Solinus on the Essenes beside the Dead Sea (first / third centuries CE)

Judeans: Pseudo-Hekataios' <i>On Judeans</i> (pre-first century CE)

Judeans: Strabo on decline after Moses and banditry (early first century CE)

Judeans: Tacitus on Judean origins and customs and on the revolt(second century CE)

Judeans: Trogus on contributions of Joseph and Moses and on the exodus (first century BCE)

Judeans: Valerius Maximus on the 139 BCE expulsion with "Chaldeans" (early first century CE)

Karmanians, Ichthyophagians, and others: Nearchos, Onesikritos, Juba, and Pliny on the area around the Persian Gulf and Red Sea (fourth century BCE-first century CE)

Kimmerians and Kolchians: Herodotos on other Pontic peoples (mid-fifth century BCE)

Kolchians, Heniochians, Drillians, and others: Arrian on his journey along the Black Sea coast near the Caucasus mountains (ca. 131-132 CE)

Lelegians and Carians: Philip of Theangela on civilized Carians and savage Lelegians (third century BCE)

Lelegians: Plutarch on Greek Trallians' treatment of indigenous peoples (early second century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Pliny the Elder on various peoples and strange customs (first century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Sallust and Punic sources on the geography and peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans / Africans: Tacitus on Tacfarinas and resistance by Numidians, Maurians, and Musulamians (early second century CE)

Libyans and Ausourianians: Synesios on years of incursions into Cyrenaica (early fifth century CE)

Libyans and Maurians: Corippus' poetic survey of northern African peoples in the tale of John Troglita (after 548 CE)

Libyans, Egyptians, Iberians, and Celts: Diodoros on Herakles' civilizing expeditions (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans, Iberians, and Celts: Cicero on controlling "savage" peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Aelian on Libyan views and customs about animals (late second century CE)

Libyans: Dio Cassius and others on Domitian's annihilation of Nasamonians (early third century CE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on competing claims about the god Dionysos (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Eratosthenes, Artemidoros, and Strabo on peoples and customs (early first century CE)

Libyans: Hanno the Carthaginian (fourth century BCE or earlier)

Libyans: Herodotos on customs and colonization (fifth century BCE)

Ligurians: Diodoros on their harsh environment, hard work and noble spirit (mid-first century BCE)

Lycians, Lydians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Plutarch on the effeminacy of grief (third-fourth centuries CE)

Lycians, Pamphylians, and Cilicians: Strabo contrasts civilized and uncivilized peoples in southern Anatolia (early first century CE)

Lycians: Menekrates of Xanthos and Polycharmos on Lycian origins and the practice of fish-divination (late fifth century BCE on)

Lydians: Diodoros on materialistic Croesus, consultation of Anacharsis and other sages, and Persian conquest (mid-first century BCE)

Lydians: Herodotos on king Croesus and Lydian customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Maiotians, Bosporians, Kaukasians, and other Pontic peoples: Strabo on northern Asia (early first century CE)

Mardians among Persians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's conquest of an uncivilized cave people (first century CE)

Medes, Assyrians, Baktrians, and others: Herodotos on the mixed composition of the Persian army under Xerxes (fifth century BCE)

Medes: Diodoros on Datis and legends of an Athenian-Median connection (mid-first century BCE)

Medes: Nearchos and Strabo on neighbouring bandit-peoples and on Median customs (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Diodoros, Pliny and Plutarch on Pompey's subjugation of peoples of the world (mid-first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria's poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Ovid on identifying personified peoples in art to impress a girl (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos' Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Vitruvius on the effects of climate (first century BCE)

Mossynoikians in Pontos: Xenophon and others on the "most barbarous" people (early fourth century BCE)

Mysians / Moesians: Poseidonios on their identification and customs based on Homer (first century BCE)

Mysians, Galatians, Pisidians, and others: Strabo on relations among Anatolian peoples (early first century CE)

Northern peoples: Antonios Diogenes' "Wonders Beyond Thule" and ethnographic fiction (second century CE / ninth century CE)

Northern peoples: Inscriptions on barbarians as bandits (second-third centuries CE)

Panchaians: Euhemeros and Diodoros on a noble people worshipping Zeus on a utopian island (fourth / first century BCE)

Parapamisadians: Curtius Rufus on peoples east of Baktria (first century CE)

Parthians and Arabians: Isidoros of Charax and the imperial purposes of geographic and ethnographic information (late first century BCE)

Parthians and Scythians: Julius Africanus on barbarian military techniques (early third century CE)

Parthians, Medes, and Babylonians: Pliny the Elder (first century CE)

Parthians: Arrian on their Scythian origins (second century CE)

Parthians: Curtius Rufus on their Scythian origins (first century CE)

Parthians: Dio Cassius on their empire and military customs (early third century CE)

Parthians: Panamara inscription on Zeus' miraculous actions against invading Parthians (ca. 39 BCE)

Parthians: Poseidonios on royal banquets (first century BCE)

Parthians: Strabo on Scythian origins and military success (early first century CE)

Parthians: Trogus on the origins and developments of an empire (first century BCE)

Pelasgians, Lelegians, and others: Hekataios of Miletos and Strabo on barbarians of Greece (sixth century BCE on)

Pelasgians: Strabo on a legendary migrating people (early first century CE)

People on an idyllic island in the Atlantic off Libya: Diodoros on their natural resources and on Carthaginian colonization plans (mid-first century BCE)

Peoples of Arachosia and Ariana: Pliny the Elder on peoples between Baktria and India (first century CE)

Persian diasporas: Pseudo-Clement, Eusebios, Epiphanios, and Basil on the Magusaeans and their customs (third century CE on)

Persians and Medes: Douris, Herakleides, Klearchos, and others on royal banquets (fifth-fourth centuries BCE)

Persians and Medes: Herodotos on customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Persians and Medes: Thucydides on Medizing (late-fifth century BCE)

Persians and neighbouring eastern peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on Persian territories and lifestyles (late fourth century CE)

Persians and peoples in their territory: Strabo on their customs and on bandit peoples (early first century CE)

Persians and Thessalians: Lucan compares Thessalian women's techniques to Magian ones (mid-first century CE)

Persians, Babylonians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Clementines on Zoroaster and the origins of Magian skill (second-fourth centuries CE)

Persians, Celts, Thracians, and others: Polyainos on "tricky" barbarians (mid-second century CE)

Persians, Hyrkanians, Armenians, Derbikians and others: Curtius Rufus on the mixed composition of the army of Darius III (first century CE)

Persians, Spartans, and Athenians: Platonic author on the superiority of the Persians (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Thracians, and Amazons: Isocrates on Athenian superiority and barbarian weakness (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Persians: Aeschylus on "barbarian" hierarchy, luxury, and emotionalism (472 BCE)

Persians: Agathias on the divergent customs of Zoroaster's Magians (sixth century CE and earlier)

Persians: Apion of Alexandria on Pases the Magian (first century CE)

Persians: Apuleius of Madaura's defence against the charge of harmful Magian actions (ca. 158 CE)

Persians: Cattulus' poem smearing Magians as incestuous (early first century BCE)

Persians: Curtius Rufus on military processions and royal luxury (first century CE)

Persians: Deinon, Chrysippos, and Cicero on their character and customs (third century BCE / mid-first century BCE)

Persians: Derveni papyrus on the activities of Magians (ca. 400 BCE)

Persians: Diodoros on expansionism and arrogance of Persian kings (mid-first century BCE)

Persians: Emperor Diocletian on strange and monstrous Manicheans (ca. 300 CE)

Persians: Hippokratic author on the "sacred" disease and Magian attempts at healing (ca. 400 BCE)

Persians: Matthew and Luke-Acts on two contrasting approaches to Magians (late first century CE)

Persians: Maximus of Tyre on "barbarizing" and the excesses of royal pleasure (late second century CE)

Persians: Plato on Persian decline into effeminacy and tyranny (early fourth century BCE)

Persians: Pliny on the dissemination of Magian skill to the peoples of the world (first century CE)

Persians: Suda on Zoroaster and on expertise in Magian practice, howling chants, and potions (tenth century CE)

Persians: Trogus, Diodoros, and Curtius Rufus on Alexander of Macedon's decline into eastern ways (first century BCE on)

Persians: Varro on Pythagoras' and Numa's adoption of Persian forms of divination (first century BCE / early fifth century CE)

Persians: Vitruvius theorizes about Greek depictions of enemies in architectural contexts (first century BCE)

Persians: Xanthos on the Magians' supposed incest and on Zoroaster's date (mid-fifth century BCE)

Persians: Xenophon and an anonymous author on royal customs and Cyrus (early fourth century BCE / second century BCE)

Phoenician diasporas: Timaios of Tauromenion, Trogus, and Appian on Tyrians, on the founding of Carthage and on child sacrifice (first century BCE)

Phoenicians and Sardinians: Cicero's ethnic invective in defending Marcus Scaurus (mid-first century BCE)

Phoenicians: Herodotos on customs and colonizing efforts (fifth century BCE)

Phoenicians: Strabo on the achievements of Tyrians and Sidonians (early first century CE)

Phrygians: Alexander Polyhistor, Hermogenes, and others on Phrygian Matters (first century BCE on)

Phrygians: Diodoros on Battakes the priest of the great Mother visiting Rome (mid-first century BCE)

Phrygians: Euripides' cowardly and inferior easterner via the slave character in Orestes (408 BCE)

Pontic peoples: Phlyarchos on traits and customs of Thibians and Scythians (early second century BCE)

Romans: Ammianus Marcellinus on the danger of decline into uncivilized lifestyles (late fourth century CE)

Romans: Diodoros on Herakles' journey to Rome before Rome (mid-first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins, Italic peoples, and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on the supposed Roman refusal of barbarian and Phrygian customs (late first century BCE)

Romans: Livy, Pliny, Plutarch, and Dio on Roman human sacrifice of Gauls and Greeks (late first century BCE on)

Romans: Strabo concludes on their dominance and superiority (early first century CE)

Romans: Strabo on Roman superiority and conquest of peoples (early first century CE)

Samaritans: Josephos on Cuthean origins and relations with Judeans over centuries (late first century CE)

Sarmatians and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples of northwestern Asia (first century CE)

Sarmatians, Huns, and Goths: Olympiodoros of Thebes on statues as protection against invasions (early fifth century CE)

Sarmatians: Tacitus on ferocity and laziness in military situations (early second century CE)

Scythian and Thracian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Scythians and Getians: Dio of Prusa on inter-ethnic encounters at Olbia and on Getian Matters (late first century CE)

Scythians and other northern peoples: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians and other Pontic peoples: Herodotos on the "most ignorant peoples of all" (fifth century BCE)

Scythians and Thracians: Hekataios of Miletos on European peoples (sixth century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Hyperboreans: Diodoros on some northerners (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Persians: Isocrates on the superiority of the Athenian people (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians, Germans, and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples on the western and northern coasts of the Black Sea (first century CE)

Scythians, Thracians, Celts, and Persians: Plato on heavy-drinking and war-like peoples (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Aischines' ethnic invective against Demosthenes (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Alexander Polyhistor on Iamians and just Abians (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Lucian on Anacharsis and Solon's dialogue about the superiority of Greek customs (mid-second century CE)

Scythians: Lucian on Toxaris' and Anacharsis' differing encounters with Greeks (late second century CE)

Scythians: Theopompos on a dish made from horses' milk (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Trogus on Scythian superiority (first century BCE)

Serians (Chinese), Ottorokorians and others: Pliny the Elder on the savage silk people (first century CE)

Sicilians and other Greeks: Cicero's praise for Sicilians in the prosecution of Verres (mid-first century BCE)

Sikelians, Sikanians, Sardinians and Iolaeians: Diodoros on ancient migrations and local customs on Sicily (mid-first century BCE)

Syrian and Phoenician diasporas: Inscriptional and archeological evidence

Syrian diasporas: Diodoros and Florus on Eunous of Apameia's leadership of the slave rebellion on Sicily (mid-first century BCE / second century CE)

Syrians, Persians, Indians, Libyans, and others: Hekataios of Miletos on peoples of Asia (sixth century BCE)

Syrians: Apuleius on "effeminate" priests of Atargatis (late second century CE)

Taurians and Kolchians: Diodoros on the origins of human sacrifice in the Black Sea area (mid-first century BCE)

Thracians and Odrysians: Thucydides on Thracians, power, and violence (late fifth century BCE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their "savage" character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Thracians, Galatians, Daans, and others: Polybios on the mixed composition of the armies of Ptolemy IV and Antiochos III (second century BCE)

Thracians, Getians, Paionians, and others: Herodotos (mid-fifth century BCE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

Thracians: Charon of Lampsakos on relations between Bisaltians and Greek Kardians (mid-fifth century BCE)

Thracians: Diodoros on Dromichaites and Kotys as wise Thracian kings (mid-first century BCE)

Thracians: Diodoros on the cruelty and lawlessness of the kings Diegylis and Zibelmios (mid-first century BCE)

Thracians: Greeks and Thracians honouring the Thracian goddess Bendis (fifth-third centuries BCE)

Thracians: Tacitus on their uncivilized and wild nature (early second century CE)

Thracians: Theopompos on king Kotys I's obsession with banquets (mid-fourth century BCE)

Troglodytes: Graffiti and inscriptions from the Red Sea area thanking Pan / Min for rescue from Cave-dwellers (second century BCE)

Trojans, Lelegians, and Kilikians: Homer and Strabo on legendary peoples and migrations of historical peoples in Anatolia (early first century CE)

Trojans, Teukrians, and Dardanians: Diodoros on their origins (mid-first century BCE)

Tyrrhenians: Diodoros on Etruscan inventions, lifestyle, and decline (mid-first century BCE)

Tyrrhenians: Strabo on Etruscans as a powerful "bandit" people (early first century CE)

Tyrrhenians: Theopompos on the Etruscans' supposed sexual deviance and freedom (mid-fourth century BCE)

Western peoples beyond the pillars of Herakles (and up): Lucian's "A True Story" and ethnographic fiction (late second century CE)

(03) Visual ethnography (via archeology)

Amazons: Greek artistic depictions of a female warrior people (fourth century BCE to second century CE)

Armenians / Parthians: Statue of the client king Tiridates I in the Louvre (66 CE)

Barbarians: Modern colonial repurposing of images of captives

Britons, Armenians, Bessians, and others: Reliefs of subjugated peoples at Aphrodisias (first century CE)

Celtic diasporas: Galatian mercenaries settled at Alexandria in Egypt (ca. 250-200 BCE)

Celts, Persians, and Amazons: Smaller statues of fighting and dying "barbarians" associated with Attalos of Pergamon (third-second century BCE / second century CE)

Celts: Inhabitants of Myrina with images of Galatian warriors (second century BCE)

Celts: Kyzikos monument with Herakles clubbing a Galatian (278/277 BCE)

Celts: Statues of dying Gauls / Galatians associated with Attalos I of Pergamon (late third century BCE / second century CE)

Dacians and Sarmatians: Reliefs on Trajan's Column celebrating subjugation (early second century CE)

Dacians and Sarmatians: Reliefs on Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi, Romania (early second century CE)

Dacians: Frieze of Trajan's conquest reused on the so-called Arch of Constantine (likely 107 CE or after)

Egyptians, Ethiopians, Indians and others: Depictions of "pygmies" in Greek and Roman art (fifth century BCE-first century CE)

Egyptians: Attic vase paintings, Isocrates and others on king Bousiris and human sacrifice (fifth century BCE on)

Ethiopians or Nubians: Athenian-style pottery depictions of darker-skinned subjects (sixth-fifth centuries BCE)

Ethiopians or Nubians: Pottery from Athens and Greek cities of Italy depicting a darker-skinned youth devoured by a crocodile (fifth-fourth centuries BCE)

Gauls and Germans: Scenes from the Triumphal Arch of Orange (late first century BCE)

Indians: Greek representations of conquest on coins with Alexander of Macedon and Demetrios of Baktria wearing elephant skins (fourth-second century BCE)

Judeans: Reliefs on the Arch for Titus depicting temple treasures and defeat (late first century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Ancient and modern composite statue of "The Moor"

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 1] on defeat, capture, and subjugation (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 2] on humiliated captives kneeling or on the ground (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 3] on kneeling in supplication or adoration (first century BCE on)

Parthians, Celts and Iberians or Germans: Scenes on the breastplate of the "Augustus of Prima Porta" (early first century CE)

Parthians: Kneeling colossal support statues in eastern garb (first century CE)

Parthians: Scenes from the Arch of Septimius Severus (early third century CE)

Persians: God Mithras as a Roman representation of a Persian (second century CE)

Persians: Vitruvius theorizes about Greek depictions of enemies in architectural contexts (first century BCE)

Sarmatians, Marcomannians, Quadians, and Iazygians: Reliefs on Marcus Aurelius' column including women and children (176-193 CE)

Scythians: Greek depictions of Scythian archers on Attic pottery (sixth century BCE)

Thracians: Attic vase paintings depicting Thracian women with tattoos, warriors, and Orpheus (sixth-fifth centuries BCE)

Thracians: Greeks and Thracians honouring the Thracian goddess Bendis (fifth-third centuries BCE)

(04) Greeks on wise "barbarians" and noble primitives

Assyrian / Babylonian wisdom: Sibyl of Babylon on the superiority of the Judean people (second century BCE)

Assyrian and Egyptian wisdom: Platonic author on Greek perfection of barbarian astral observation (late-fourth century BCE)

Assyrian wisdom: The Kyranides on a journey to learn from a foreign inscription (fourth century CE or earlier)

Babylonian / Persian wisdom: Philodemos, Seneca, and others on Chaldeans / Magians at Plato's death (first century BCE on)

Babylonian and Persian wisdom: Kleitarchos on Chaldeans and Magians (late fourth-third centuries BCE)

Babylonian and Persian wisdom: Various authors on reception and expulsion of Chaldeans, Magians, and other foreign experts at Rome (first century CE on)

Babylonian wisdom: Diodoros on Chaldeans' astrology and divination (mid-first century BCE)

Babylonian wisdom: Gellius on Favorinus' speech against Chaldean astrology (mid-second century CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Iamblichos on Mesopotamian legends and his training in Magian skills (mid-second century CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Lucian's Menippos visits Mithrobarzanes the Chaldean / Magian wise man (late second century CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Philo on Abraham's migration away from Chaldean astrology (early first century CE)

Barbarian and Judean wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [V] on the sources of Plato's thought (late second century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [VI] on barbarian and Hebrew philosophy (late second century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Cornutus on early humanity's Stoic understanding of the cosmos (mid-first century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Dio of Prusa on barbarians' innate knowledge of god (late first century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Porphyry of Tyre's Neoplatonic perspective (third century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Poseidonios on inventors of the golden age (first century BCE)

Barbarian wisdom: The Thunder, Perfect Mind (before the fourth century CE)

Britons: Diodoros on a simple way of life (mid-first century BCE)

Celtic, Indian, and Assyrian wisdom: Polyhistor on Pythagoras' education by wise barbarians (first century BCE)

Celts: Pliny the Elder on medicine, rites and Magian skill among Druids (first century CE)

Dyrbaians: Ktesias on an extremely just people between Baktria and India (early fourth century BCE)

Egyptian / Persian / Judean wisdom: Judean legends of Jannes and Jambres as Magians in the Exodus account (third century CE and earlier)

Egyptian and Persian wisdom: Plutarch on the "barbarian-lover" Herodotos (early second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Alexander Romance on king Nektanebos the astrologer and diviner (fourth century CE and earlier)

Egyptian wisdom: Apuleius on Zatchlas the Egyptian prophet who calls up the dead (late second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Cicero, Diodoros and Valerius Maximus on Pythagoras' and Plato's supposed journeys to Egypt (first centuries BCE and CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Lucian's story about Eukrates and Pankrates (late second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plato on Solon, the Egyptian priest, and Atlantis (mid-fourth century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plato's Socrates on the discoveries of the Egyptian god Thoth (fourth century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plutarch on wise Egyptian priests and on Isis and Osiris (early second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Thessalos on king Nechepsos and an Egyptian priest (first or second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Vettius Valens and others on Petosiris and pharaoh Nechepsos as astrologers (first-fifth centuries CE)

Egyptian, Phoenician, and Phrygian wisdom: Ephoros on inventors (mid-fourth century BCE)

Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Phoenicians: Julius Africanus on competitive chronologies (ca. 222 CE)

Egyptians: Attic vase paintings, Isocrates and others on king Bousiris and human sacrifice (fifth century BCE on)

Eusebeians and Machimians in an alternative world: Theopompos on pious and war-like peoples (mid-fourth century BCE)

Iberians: Diodoros on Viriathus and the Lusitanians' resistance to Roman rule (mid-first century BCE)

Indian and Judean wisdom: Klearchos citing Aristotle (fourth century BCE)

Indian and Persian wisdom: Deinon of Kolophon, Cicero, and Plutarch on Alexander, the naked philosophers, and Kalanos (early second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Alexander Polyhistor and Clement of Alexandria (VII) on the Brahmans and naked sages (first century BCE / late second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Apuleius on the amazing naked philosophers and Pythagoras' journeys (mid-second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Josephos integrates Indians into Eleazar's Masada speech (late first century CE)

Indian wisdom: Naked philosophers and wise diviners in the Alexander Romance (fourth century CE and earlier)

Indian wisdom: Nearchos, Megasthenes, and Arrian on the sages Dandamis and Kalanos (fourth century BCE-second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Philostratos on Apollonios of Tyana's journeys to barbarian lands (early third century CE)

Indians: Megasthenes, Aristoboulos, Onesikritos, and Strabo on Indian customs and on Brahmans (fourth century BCE-early first century CE)

Indians: Palladios and George on naked philosophers or Brahmans (fourth / ninth centuries CE)

Isaurians: Diodoros on their bravery and noble death (mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Anonymous on Abraham's contributions (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Aristoboulos on Moses and the Judean god as source for Plato and Pythagoras (mid-second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Artapanos on contributions by Abraham, Joseph, and Moses (second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Eupolemos on contributions by Abraham and Moses (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Abraham's dissemination of astrological knowledge (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on philosophical sects among Judeans (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Solomon as the ultimate wise man, controller of lower spirits, and healer (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos' self-presentation as the optimum wise Judean (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the superiority of Moses and Judean ancestral customs (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the Therapeutists' lifestyle (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clement on a journey to Peter the Judean sage (third century CE and on)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clementines on Abraham the astrologer and legends of migration (second-fourth centuries CE)

Judean wisdom: Tatian the Assyrian on the priority of Moses' "barbarian wisdom" (second century CE)

Judean wisdom: Testament of Solomon on Solomon's superiority in controlling lower spirits and in healing (first-third century CE)

Judean wisdom: Theophrastos on Judean philosophers (fourth century BCE)

Judean, Indian, Babylonian, and Egyptian wisdom: Numenius the Platonic philosopher (mid-second century CE)

Judeans and Thracians: Hermippos of Smyrna on their influence on Pythagoras (early second century BCE)

Judeans, Syrians, Indians, and others: Porphyry of Tyre on abstinence from meat (third century CE)

Lydians: Diodoros on materialistic Croesus, consultation of Anacharsis and other sages, and Persian conquest (mid-first century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pliny the Elder on inventors around the world (first century CE)

Panchaians: Euhemeros and Diodoros on a noble people worshipping Zeus on a utopian island (fourth / first century BCE)

Persian / Hyperborean wisdom: Anonymous author on Gobryas the Magian and the bronze tablets about death and judgment (first century BCE)

Persian and Babylonian wisdom: Pseudo-Demokritos and others on Demokritos' training by Magians and Chaldeans (first century BCE on)

Persian wisdom: Aelian on the Magians' predictions about the savage Artaxerxes III (late second century)

Persian wisdom: Ammianus Marcellinus on Zoroaster, Hystaspes, and the Magians (late fourth century CE)

Persian wisdom: Aristoxenos of Tarentum on Pythagoras and Zoroaster (late fourth century BCE)

Persian wisdom: Celsus and Origen on Magians and on Moses and Jesus as howlers of chants (second-third centuries CE)

Persian wisdom: Celsus on mysteries of Mithras as a source of ancient wisdom (mid-second century CE)

Persian wisdom: Euboulos and Porphyry of Tyre on Zoroaster and the cave (third century CE)

Persian wisdom: Eudemos of Rhodes on Magians (fourth century BCE)

Persian wisdom: Herakleides of Pontos on the Magian who circumnavigated Libya (mid-fourth century BCE)

Persian wisdom: Lactantius and others on the Oracles of Hystaspes the Mede (third century CE)

Persian wisdom: Plutarch's story about Kleombrotos' journeys (early second century CE)

Persian wisdom: Theopompos of Chios and Plutarch on Magians and Zoroaster (fourth century BCE and later)

Persian, Babylonian, and Indian wisdom: Pseudo-Lucian on long-living sages and peoples (third century CE and earlier)

Persian, Babylonian, and Scythian wisdom: Diogenes of Laertes refutes Magian and Chaldean origins for Greek philosophy (early third century CE)

Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Celtic wisdom: Dio of Prusa on philosophers' roles in leadership (late first century CE)

Persian, Indian, and Judean wisdom: Klearchos of Soloi on Magian precedence (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Babylonians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Clementines on Zoroaster and the origins of Magian skill (second-fourth centuries CE)

Persians: Agathias on the divergent customs of Zoroaster's Magians (sixth century CE and earlier)

Persians: Deinon, Chrysippos, and Cicero on their character and customs (third century BCE / mid-first century BCE)

Persians: Dio of Prusa on Magians and a supposedly Zoroastrian myth (late first century CE)

Persians: Matthew and Luke-Acts on two contrasting approaches to Magians (late first century CE)

Persians: Suda on Zoroaster and on expertise in Magian practice, howling chants, and potions (tenth century CE)

Phoenician wisdom: Ampelius on Mochos of Sidon (early-third century CE)

Phoenician wisdom: Eudemos of Rhodes and Mochos of Sidon on the universe (fourth century BCE)

Phoenician wisdom: Strabo and Poseidonios on Mochos of Sidon (first century BCE)

Phoenician, Egyptian and Babylonian wisdom: Porphyry of Tyre and Antonius Diogenes on Pythagoras (third century CE)

Phoenician, Egyptian and Persian wisdom: Iamblichos of Chalkis on Pythagoras (fourth century CE)

Scythian wisdom: Curtius Rufus on the Scythian elder's speech about Alexander the bandit (first century CE)

Scythian wisdom: Letters of Anacharsis on wise barbarians (mid-third century BCE)

Scythian wisdom: Plutarch on Anacharsis at the dinner of the seven sages (early second century CE)

Scythians: Alexander Polyhistor on Iamians and just Abians (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians: Lucian on a competition between Toxaris and Mnesippos about ethnic superiority (mid-second century CE)

Scythians: Lucian on Anacharsis and Solon's dialogue about the superiority of Greek customs (mid-second century CE)

Scythians: Lucian on Toxaris' and Anacharsis' differing encounters with Greeks (late second century CE)

Sogdians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's assessment of their noble and courageous character (first century CE)

Thracians: Diodoros on Dromichaites and Kotys as wise Thracian kings (mid-first century BCE)

(05) Judeans (Jews) and Jesus adherents as participants in ethnographic culture

Amalekites: Josephos and Philo on a prototypical arch-enemy people (first century CE)

Arabians and Judeans: Jubilees, Molon, and Josephos on identifying the Ishmaelites (second century BCE on)

Arabians: Pseudo-Nilus on barbarian bandits and Saracens in the Sinai desert (early fifth century CE)

Arabians: Strabo and Josephos on Itureans as a supposed bandit-people (first century CE)

Assyrian / Babylonian wisdom: Sibyl of Babylon on the superiority of the Judean people (second century BCE)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Philo on Abraham's migration away from Chaldean astrology (early first century CE)

Barbarian and Judean wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [V] on the sources of Plato's thought (late second century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Caesarius of Nazianzos' and George the Monk's collection of extraordinary customs (sixth / ninth centuries CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Celsus and Origen of Alexandria (second-third centuries CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [VI] on barbarian and Hebrew philosophy (late second century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: The Thunder, Perfect Mind (before the fourth century CE)

Canaanites / non-Judean peoples: Jubilees on the Dinah story and intermarriage (mid-second century BCE)

Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, and Judeans: Aristides of Athens (second century CE)

Christians, Judeans, and Greeks: Christians as a descent group in the Epistle to Diognetos (second or third century CE)

Cretans: Stereotypes in the letter to Titus (early second century CE)

Eastern and northern peoples: Bardaisan of Edessa's Book of the Laws of Countries, Pseudo-Clementines, and Origen on astrology and peoples (second-third centuries CE)

Egyptian / Persian / Judean wisdom: Judean legends of Jannes and Jambres as Magians in the Exodus account (third century CE and earlier)

Egyptians and Canaanites: Wisdom of Solomon on worship of animals and images (first century BCE)

Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Phoenicians: Julius Africanus on competitive chronologies (ca. 222 CE)

Egyptians, Phrygians, Assyrians and Persians: Firmicus Maternus on impious customs (mid-fourth century CE)

Egyptians: Clement of Alexandria [II] on Egyptian animal worship as less offensive than Greek customs (late second century CE)

Egyptians: Josephos on animal worship (late first century CE)

Egyptians: Josephos on the envy of an inferior people (last-first century CE)

Egyptians: The Judean tale of Joseph and Aseneth on rejecting Egyptian gods and on intermarriage (ca. first century CE)

Ethiopians, Nubians, and Egyptians: Christian authors picturing darker-skinned peoples as "demons" (second century CE on)

Ethiopians: Artapanos and Josephos on Moses, intermarriage, and the Kushites (second century BCE-first century CE)

Ethiopians: Origen on the blackness of Solomon's and Moses' Ethiopian wife and on the spiritual Ethiopian (early third century CE)

Ethiopians: Palladios and others on Abba Moses the former bandit with darker skin (fourth-fifth centuries CE)

Ethiopians: Philo of Alexandria on the supposed lowness of Ethiopians and self-control of Assyrians (early first century CE)

Germans and Sarmatians: Josephos on impulsive and violent northerners (late first century CE)

Germans: Philo of Alexandria on fighting the tides (first century CE)

Greeks and Judeans: "Hellenizing" and "Judaizing" in 2 Maccabees (first century BCE)

Greeks and other peoples: Paul's Judean stereotypes about non-Judeans (mid-first century CE)

Greeks, Barbarians, Judeans, and Christians: Eusebios' framing of a way of life (early fourth century CE)

Idumeans and Judeans: Ptolemy the historian on the difference (late first century BCE)

Idumeans: Josephos on the Edomites' origins and relations with Judeans (late first century CE)

Indian wisdom: Alexander Polyhistor and Clement of Alexandria (VII) on the Brahmans and naked sages (first century BCE / late second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Josephos integrates Indians into Eleazar's Masada speech (late first century CE)

Indians: Bardaisan of Edessa on Indian ambassadors' tales and the Brahmans (early third century CE)

Indians: Palladios and George on naked philosophers or Brahmans (fourth / ninth centuries CE)

Israelites, Egyptians, Idumeans, Scythians, and others: Origen on ethnic hierarchies and their spiritual equivalents (mid-third century CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos on conflicts in Babylonia, ca. 40-66 CE (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Philo on conflicts with Greeks at Alexandria and on rebellious Egyptians (mid-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Anonymous on Abraham's contributions (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Aristoboulos on Moses and the Judean god as source for Plato and Pythagoras (mid-second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Artapanos on contributions by Abraham, Joseph, and Moses (second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Eupolemos on contributions by Abraham and Moses (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Abraham's dissemination of astrological knowledge (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on philosophical sects among Judeans (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Solomon as the ultimate wise man, controller of lower spirits, and healer (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos' Against Apion in full (late first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos' self-presentation as the optimum wise Judean (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the superiority of Moses and Judean ancestral customs (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the Therapeutists' lifestyle (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clement on a journey to Peter the Judean sage (third century CE and on)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clementines on Abraham the astrologer and legends of migration (second-fourth centuries CE)

Judean wisdom: Tatian the Assyrian on the priority of Moses' "barbarian wisdom" (second century CE)

Judean wisdom: Testament of Solomon on Solomon's superiority in controlling lower spirits and in healing (first-third century CE)

Judean, Persian, and Indian wisdom: Philo on the freedom of Essenes and Kalanos (early first century CE)

Judeans and others: The Gospel of Philip (before the fourth century CE)

Judeans: Ignatius on Judaizing and Christianizing (early second century CE)

Libyans and Ausourianians: Synesios on years of incursions into Cyrenaica (early fifth century CE)

Libyans, Assyrians and Arabians: Kleodemos and Josephos on Abraham and Keturah's descendants and their many colonies (second or first century BCE on)

Midianites and Moabites / Arabians: Josephos and Philo on intermixing and the dangers of acculturation (first century CE)

Parthians and Scythians: Julius Africanus on barbarian military techniques (early third century CE)

Parthians, Libyans, Egyptians and others: Acts of the Apostles on legends of Judean migration (early second century CE)

Persian diasporas: Pseudo-Clement, Eusebios, Epiphanios, and Basil on the Magusaeans and their customs (third century CE on)

Persian wisdom: Celsus and Origen on Magians and on Moses and Jesus as howlers of chants (second-third centuries CE)

Persian wisdom: Celsus on mysteries of Mithras as a source of ancient wisdom (mid-second century CE)

Persian wisdom: Lactantius and others on the Oracles of Hystaspes the Mede (third century CE)

Persians, Babylonians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Clementines on Zoroaster and the origins of Magian skill (second-fourth centuries CE)

Persians: Acts of Archelaos on Mani's foreignness (early fourth century CE)

Persians: Heresy-hunters on Simon Magus and other Magians (second-third centuries CE)

Persians: Irenaeus on Marcus the Valentinian Magian (late second century CE)

Persians: Philo on true Magian skill and its criminal counterfeit (early first century CE)

Phoenicians: Gospel of Mark on Jesus and a Syro-Phoenician woman (late first century CE)

Pontic peoples: Tertullian on the Pontic "barbarian" Marcion (late second century CE)

Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and others: Minucius Felix's ethnographic defence of the Christian people (early third century CE)

Romans: Rabbis on four successive imperial powers – Babylonians, Medes, Greeks, Romans (fifth century CE and earlier)

Samaritans and Judeans: Belonging to Israel in the Gospels (first century CE)

Samaritans: Josephos on Cuthean origins and relations with Judeans over centuries (late first century CE)

Scythians and barbarians: Colossians and others on ritual recitations (late first or early second century CE)

Scythians: Adventures of Andrew and Matthias among the Man-eaters as ethnographic fiction (third-fifth centuries CE)

Scythians: Clement of Alexandria [I] on the example of Anacharsis (late second century CE)

Spartans and Judeans: First Maccabees' and Josephos' claims about kinship ties (ca. 100 BCE / ca. 90s CE)

(06) Migration, ethnic diversity, and diasporas

Armenians: Kyrsilos and Strabo on a Thessalian origin story, on worship of Anahita and on supposed sacred prostitution (early first century CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Philo on Abraham's migration away from Chaldean astrology (early first century CE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Thucydides theorizes the shift from barbarian banditry to settled civilization (late fifth century BCE)

Carians: Strabo on long-term interactions with Greeks and on "Carianizing" (early first century CE)

Celtic diasporas: Galatian mercenaries settled at Alexandria in Egypt (ca. 250-200 BCE)

Celts: Livy on legends of the Gauls' fourth century BCE migrations and an invasion of Rome (late first century BCE)

Celts: Trogus on Gallic invasions and character (first century BCE)

Egyptian and Ethiopian diasporas: Diodoros on competing legends of migration and colonization (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptian diasporas: Herodotos on legends about Kolchians and customs of circumcision (mid-fifth century BCE)

Egyptian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Egyptian diasporas: Manetho, Josephos and others on legends of migration concerning Hyksos and Judeans (third century BCE and on)

Ethnic diversity in Alexandria: Dio of Prusa on the cross-roads of the world (late first century CE)

Ethnic diversity in Egypt: Inscriptional and papyrological evidence

Ethnic diversity in Libya / Africa: Sallust on legends of migration (mid-first century BCE)

Ethnic diversity on Rhodes island: Inscriptional evidence

Greek diasporas and indigenous Iberians and Celts: Herodotos, Aristotle, Trogus and others on tales of Phokaian colonization (mid-fifth century BCE on)

Greek diasporas and indigenous Libyans: Herodotos on tales of colonization (mid-fifth century BCE)

Greek diasporas: Aristoxenos of Tarentum on barbarizing to Tyrrhenian ways (fourth century BCE)

Idumean diasporas: Inscriptions and papyri (second century BCE-third century CE)

Italian and Roman diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Italic peoples: Antiochos of Syracuse on migrations of peoples to and within Italy (late fifth century BCE)

Judean and Israelite diasporas: Inscriptional evidence (second century BCE-third century CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos on conflicts in Babylonia, ca. 40-66 CE (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos on tensions with Greeks in Syria, the Decapolis, and Alexandria ca. 59-66 CE (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos' citation of documents on Asia Minor and Libya under Julius Caesar and Augustus (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Philo on conflicts with Greeks at Alexandria and on rebellious Egyptians (mid-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clementines on Abraham the astrologer and legends of migration (second-fourth centuries CE)

Judeans: Hekataios, pseudo-Hekataios and Diodoros on Judean origins and migration with the exodus (first century BCE)

Kimmerian diasporas: Ephoros on legends about Avernus in Italy (mid-fourth century BCE)

Libyans, Assyrians and Arabians: Kleodemos and Josephos on Abraham and Keturah's descendants and their many colonies (second or first century BCE on)

Libyans: Eratosthenes, Artemidoros, and Strabo on peoples and customs (early first century CE)

Lydian diasporas: Herodotos, Timaios of Tauromenion, and others on legends of migration to Tyrrhenia (late fourth century BCE on)

Lydians: Herodotos on king Croesus and Lydian customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mysians, Galatians, Pisidians, and others: Strabo on relations among Anatolian peoples (early first century CE)

Pelasgian diasporas: Ephoros on legends of migration (mid-fourth century BCE)

Pelasgian diasporas: Hekataios of Miletos and Herodotos on legends of migration, language, and influence (sixth century BCE)

Pelasgians, Lelegians, and others: Hekataios of Miletos and Strabo on barbarians of Greece (sixth century BCE on)

Pelasgians: Strabo on a legendary migrating people (early first century CE)

People on an idyllic island in the Atlantic off Libya: Diodoros on their natural resources and on Carthaginian colonization plans (mid-first century BCE)

Persian diasporas: Pseudo-Clement, Eusebios, Epiphanios, and Basil on the Magusaeans and their customs (third century CE on)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Phoenician diasporas: Ephoros on Kadmos and legends of migration to Boiotia (mid-fourth century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins, Italic peoples, and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Scythian and Thracian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Sikelians, Sikanians, Phoenicians and Greeks: Thucydides on settlement of Sicily (late fifth century BCE)

Sikelians, Sikanians, Sardinians and Iolaeians: Diodoros on ancient migrations and local customs on Sicily (mid-first century BCE)

Syrian and Phoenician diasporas: Inscriptional and archeological evidence

Syrian diasporas: Diodoros and Florus on Eunous of Apameia's leadership of the slave rebellion on Sicily (mid-first century BCE / second century CE)

Thracians: Greeks and Thracians honouring the Thracian goddess Bendis (fifth-third centuries BCE)

Trojans, Lelegians, and Kilikians: Homer and Strabo on legendary peoples and migrations of historical peoples in Anatolia (early first century CE)

(07) Further ancient theorizing, ethnic stereotyping and racialization

Arkadians: Polybios theorizes environment and peoplehood (second century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Theophrastos theorizes hierarchical relations of humans and animals (fourth century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Thucydides theorizes the shift from barbarian banditry to settled civilization (late fifth century BCE)

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Egyptians, Lydians, Cilicians, and other peoples: Kratinos, Aristophanes, Suetonius and others on "Egyptianizing" and other ethnicizing stereotypes (sixth century BCE on)

Ethiopians and Thracians: Xenophon of Kolophon theorizes human representations of gods (sixth century BCE)

Ethiopians, Nubians, and Egyptians: Christian authors picturing darker-skinned peoples as "demons" (second century CE on)

Ethiopians: Palladios and others on Abba Moses the former bandit with darker skin (fourth-fifth centuries CE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Europeans, Asians, and Greeks: Aristotle on hierarchies, slaves, and environmental determinism (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Polemon theorizes the meaning of physical features (second / fifth centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Aristotle theorizes the meaning of physical features (third century BCE)

Scythians and Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros theorize about the effects of climate (second-first centuries CE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

(08) Criminalization of populations

Aitolians: Thucydides on barbarous Greeks (late fifth century BCE)

Arabians: Pseudo-Nilus on barbarian bandits and Saracens in the Sinai desert (early fifth century CE)

Arabians: Strabo and Josephos on Itureans as a supposed bandit-people (first century CE)

Cilicians: Plutarch on foreign "pirates" threatening Roman ways (early-second century CE)

Cilicians: Roman authorities, Cicero, and Florus on a population of "pirates" (100-67 BCE)

Cretans: Athenians and Rhodians on suppressing supposed bandit peoples (fifth-third centuries BCE)

Egyptians: Achilles Tatius and Dio Cassius on man-eating cowherds / bandits (second-third century CE)

Iberians: Diodoros on Viriathus and the Lusitanians' resistance to Roman rule (mid-first century BCE)

Isaurians: Ammianus Marcellinus on their incursions and banditry (late fourth century CE)

Lelegians and Carians: Philip of Theangela on civilized Carians and savage Lelegians (third century BCE)

Libyans / Africans: Tacitus on Tacfarinas and resistance by Numidians, Maurians, and Musulamians (early second century CE)

Libyans, Maurians and Ausourianians: Ammianus Marcellinus on their savage behaviour and banditry (late fourth century CE)

Medes: Nearchos and Strabo on neighbouring bandit-peoples and on Median customs (early first century CE)

Northern peoples: Inscriptions on barbarians as bandits (second-third centuries CE)

Persians: Philo on true Magian skill and its criminal counterfeit (early first century CE)

Scythian wisdom: Curtius Rufus on the Scythian elder's speech about Alexander the bandit (first century CE)

Syrian diasporas: Diodoros and Florus on Eunous of Apameia's leadership of the slave rebellion on Sicily (mid-first century BCE / second century CE)

(09) Gender, sexuality, and ethnographic discourses

Amazons, Tibarenians, and Mossynoikians: Apollonios of Rhodes on a voyage to the Kolchians (third century BCE)

Amazons: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's relationship with Thalestris (first century CE)

Arabians and Nabateans: Strabo on their supposedly uncivilized sexual and burial customs (early first century CE)

Arabians: Ammianus Marcellinus on the customs of Saracens (late fourth century CE)

Armenians: Kyrsilos and Strabo on a Thessalian origin story, on worship of Anahita and on supposed sacred prostitution (early first century CE)

Assyrian / Babylonian wisdom: Sibyl of Babylon on the superiority of the Judean people (second century BCE)

Assyrians, Babylonians, and surrounding peoples: Strabo on their customs (early first century CE)

Assyrians: Trogus on the achievements of Ninos and Semiramis and on the extreme effeminacy of Sardanapalus (first century BCE)

Babylonians and Assyrians: Herodotos on legendary queens and outstanding customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Baliaridians and other barbarian peoples off Iberia: Diodoros on their paradoxical customs (mid-first century BCE)

Barbarian peoples: Caesarius of Nazianzos' and George the Monk's collection of extraordinary customs (sixth / ninth centuries CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Britons: Tacitus and Dio Cassius on the revolt of the Icenians and Trinobantians led by Boudicca (early second century)

Celts: Anyte and Parthenios on wife abductions during the Galatian invasion (third-first century BCE)

Celts: Diodoros on Galatian origins, "savage" customs and invasions of Italy and Greece (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Phylarchos and Poseidonios on banqueting and violent customs (first century BCE)

Eastern and northern peoples: Bardaisan of Edessa's Book of the Laws of Countries, Pseudo-Clementines, and Origen on astrology and peoples (second-third centuries CE)

Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on lifestyles and diets in the extreme south (second-first centuries BCE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Iapygians and Tarentines: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Illyrians: Theopompos on banquets (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians: Herodotos on eastern peoples at the ends of the earth (mid-fifth century BCE)

Indians: Megasthenes, Aristoboulos, Onesikritos, and Strabo on Indian customs and on Brahmans (fourth century BCE-early first century CE)

Indians: Phylarchos on roots for sexual restraint (early second century BCE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Herodotos on customs and colonization (fifth century BCE)

Ligurians: Diodoros on their harsh environment, hard work and noble spirit (mid-first century BCE)

Lycians, Lydians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Plutarch on the effeminacy of grief (third-fourth centuries CE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Midianites and Moabites / Arabians: Josephos and Philo on intermixing and the dangers of acculturation (first century CE)

Mossynoikians in Pontos: Xenophon and others on the "most barbarous" people (early fourth century BCE)

New scholarly article: Maia Kotrosits, "The Ethnography of Gender" (2023)

Persian diasporas: Pseudo-Clement, Eusebios, Epiphanios, and Basil on the Magusaeans and their customs (third century CE on)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Persians: Plato on Persian decline into effeminacy and tyranny (early fourth century BCE)

Samaritans and Judeans: Belonging to Israel in the Gospels (first century CE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Hyperboreans: Diodoros on some northerners (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians: Trogus on Scythian superiority (first century BCE)

Sikelians, Sikanians, Sardinians and Iolaeians: Diodoros on ancient migrations and local customs on Sicily (mid-first century BCE)

Syrians: Apuleius on "effeminate" priests of Atargatis (late second century CE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

Tyrrhenians: Theopompos on the Etruscans' supposed sexual deviance and freedom (mid-fourth century BCE)

(10) Ethnic groups or peoples

(a) Northern peoples

Amazons, Tibarenians, and Mossynoikians: Apollonios of Rhodes on a voyage to the Kolchians (third century BCE)

Amazons: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's relationship with Thalestris (first century CE)

Amazons: Greek artistic depictions of a female warrior people (fourth century BCE to second century CE)

Amazons: Strabo on their customs and northern location (late first century CE)

Asian Albanians, Iberians, Mardians and others: Demodamas and Pliny the Elder on peoples in the Caucasus region and further east (third century BCE / first century CE)

Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Celts, and others: The Cicero brothers on the nature and effectiveness of divination (mid-first century BCE)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Barbarian and Judean wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [V] on the sources of Plato's thought (late second century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Caesarius of Nazianzos' and George the Monk's collection of extraordinary customs (sixth / ninth centuries CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Barbarian wisdom: Celsus and Origen of Alexandria (second-third centuries CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [VI] on barbarian and Hebrew philosophy (late second century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Poseidonios on inventors of the golden age (first century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Eratosthenes challenges the dichotomy (third century BCE)

Britons, Armenians, Bessians, and others: Reliefs of subjugated peoples at Aphrodisias (first century CE)

Britons: Dio Cassius on the wild lifestyle and banditry of Maiatians and Kaledonians (early third century CE)

Britons: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Britons: Tacitus (late first century CE)

Britons: Tacitus and Dio Cassius on the revolt of the Icenians and Trinobantians led by Boudicca (early second century)

Celtic, Indian, and Assyrian wisdom: Polyhistor on Pythagoras' education by wise barbarians (first century BCE)

Celts and Germans: Diodoros, Dionysios, Strabo, and Dio on distinguishing them (first centuries BCE and CE)

Celts and Germans: Plutarch’s ethnographic digressions in the Lives (early second century CE)

Celts, Iberians, and Libyans: Polybios on the mixed composition of Hannibal of Carthage's army and on military equipment (second century BCE)

Celts, Persians, and Amazons: Smaller statues of fighting and dying "barbarians" associated with Attalos of Pergamon (third-second century BCE / second century CE)

Celts: Appian of Alexandria on their character and on ambassadorial relations with Romans (second century CE)

Celts: Dio Cassius on spirited and untrustworthy Galatians (early third century CE)

Celts: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Celts: Julius Caesar on Druids and supposed human sacrifice among Gauls (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on legends of the Gauls' fourth century BCE migrations and an invasion of Rome (late first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on the Galatian invasion of Asia Minor and the Roman army's subsequent victory, ca. 189 BCE (late first century BCE)

Celts: Phylarchos and Poseidonios on banqueting and violent customs (first century BCE)

Celts: Polybios on the Celtic encounter with Rome and on his method in dealing with distant peoples (second century BCE)

Celts: Priene inscription on Galatian "impiety" and "savagery" during the invasion (ca. 278-270 BCE)

Celts: Statues of dying Gauls / Galatians associated with Attalos I of Pergamon (late third century BCE / second century CE)

Celts: Timagenes of Alexandria and Ammianus Marcellinus on Celtic origins and customs (first century BCE / fourth century CE)

Celts: Trogus on Gallic invasions and character (first century BCE)

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Daans, Kadousians, Hyrkanians, and Sakians: Strabo on peoples east of the Caspian Sea (first century CE)

Dacians and Istrians: Trogus on peoples west of the Black Sea (first century BCE)

Dacians and Sarmatians: Reliefs on Trajan's Column celebrating subjugation (early second century CE)

Dacians and Sarmatians: Reliefs on Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi, Romania (early second century CE)

Eastern and northern peoples: Bardaisan of Edessa's Book of the Laws of Countries, Pseudo-Clementines, and Origen on astrology and peoples (second-third centuries CE)

Egyptian diasporas: Herodotos on legends about Kolchians and customs of circumcision (mid-fifth century BCE)

Egyptian, Phoenician, and Phrygian wisdom: Ephoros on inventors (mid-fourth century BCE)

Egyptians, Taurians, and Celts: Cicero's Philus engages in ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century BCE)

Ethiopians and Thracians: Xenophon of Kolophon theorizes human representations of gods (sixth century BCE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Eusebeians and Machimians in an alternative world: Theopompos on pious and war-like peoples (mid-fourth century BCE)

Gauls and Germans: Scenes from the Triumphal Arch of Orange (late first century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Germans and Scythians: Seneca on enduring hardships and on anger (first century CE)

Germans, Britons, and Indians: Strabo on travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of information (early first century CE)

Germans, Suebians, Marcomannians, and Kimbrians: Poseidonios and Strabo on customs and rumours about the tides (first century BCE)

Germans: Appian of Alexandria on large, savage and spirited Germans (second century CE)

Germans: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Germans: Philo of Alexandria on fighting the tides (first century CE)

Germans: Tacitus on the revolt of the Batavians and on Batavian character (early second century CE)

Germans: Tacitus' Germania in full (late first century CE)

Getians, Dacians, and Scythians: Strabo (early first century CE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Getians: Hellanikos and others on Zamolxis (fifth century BCE on)

Huns and Alans: Ammianus Marcellinus on "savage" nomadic threats (late fourth century CE)

Hyperboreans: Herodotos, Hekataios, Diodoros, and others on a legendary northern people (four century BCE to third century CE)

Iberians and others: Avienus on a journey along the southern coast of Spain (mid-fourth century CE)

Iberians, Albanians and others of the Caucasus area: Strabo (early first century CE)

Illyrians, Pannonians, and other peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Illyrians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Illyrians: Theopompos on banquets (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on "unbelievable" peoples (first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, and Celts: Dio of Prusa critiques foreign imports and luxury (late first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, Celts, and Scythians: Ephoros on a four-fold division of the known world (mid-fourth century BCE)

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Tatian the Assyrian on the priority of Moses' "barbarian wisdom" (second century CE)

Judeans and Celts: Various authors on Claudius' actions against foreigners in the 40s CE (second / third centuries CE

Judeans, Syrians, Celts, Scythians and others: Plutarch on the "barbarian" origins of fearing the gods, or "superstition" (early second century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Indians, and others: Porphyry of Tyre on abstinence from meat (third century CE)

Kolchians, Heniochians, Drillians, and others: Arrian on his journey along the Black Sea coast near the Caucasus mountains (ca. 131-132 CE)

Libyans, Egyptians, Iberians, and Celts: Diodoros on Herakles' civilizing expeditions (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans, Iberians, and Celts: Cicero on controlling "savage" peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Maiotians, Bosporians, Kaukasians, and other Pontic peoples: Strabo on northern Asia (early first century CE)

Medes, Assyrians, Baktrians, and others: Herodotos on the mixed composition of the Persian army under Xerxes (fifth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria's poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pliny the Elder on inventors around the world (first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Polemon theorizes the meaning of physical features (second / fifth centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Aristotle theorizes the meaning of physical features (third century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos' Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 1] on defeat, capture, and subjugation (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 2] on humiliated captives kneeling or on the ground (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 3] on kneeling in supplication or adoration (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Vitruvius on the effects of climate (first century BCE)

Mysians / Moesians: Poseidonios on their identification and customs based on Homer (first century BCE)

Northern peoples: Antonios Diogenes' "Wonders Beyond Thule" and ethnographic fiction (second century CE / ninth century CE)

Northern peoples: Inscriptions on barbarians as bandits (second-third centuries CE)

Parapamisadians: Curtius Rufus on peoples east of Baktria (first century CE)

Parthians and Scythians: Julius Africanus on barbarian military techniques (early third century CE)

Parthians, Celts and Iberians or Germans: Scenes on the breastplate of the "Augustus of Prima Porta" (early first century CE)

Parthians: Arrian on their Scythian origins (second century CE)

Parthians: Curtius Rufus on their Scythian origins (first century CE)

Persian / Hyperborean wisdom: Anonymous author on Gobryas the Magian and the bronze tablets about death and judgment (first century BCE)

Persian, Babylonian, and Scythian wisdom: Diogenes of Laertes refutes Magian and Chaldean origins for Greek philosophy (early third century CE)

Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Celtic wisdom: Dio of Prusa on philosophers' roles in leadership (late first century CE)

Persians, Celts, Thracians, and others: Polyainos on "tricky" barbarians (mid-second century CE)

Persians, Thracians, and Amazons: Isocrates on Athenian superiority and barbarian weakness (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Persians: Pliny on the dissemination of Magian skill to the peoples of the world (first century CE)

Pontic peoples: Phlyarchos on traits and customs of Thibians and Scythians (early second century BCE)

Pontic peoples: Tertullian on the Pontic "barbarian" Marcion (late second century CE)

Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and others: Minucius Felix's ethnographic defence of the Christian people (early third century CE)

Sarmatians and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples of northwestern Asia (first century CE)

Sarmatians: Tacitus on ferocity and laziness in military situations (early second century CE)

Scythian and Thracian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Scythian wisdom: Curtius Rufus on the Scythian elder's speech about Alexander the bandit (first century CE)

Scythian wisdom: Letters of Anacharsis on wise barbarians (mid-third century BCE)

Scythians and barbarians: Colossians and others on ritual recitations (late first or early second century CE)

Scythians and Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros theorize about the effects of climate (second-first centuries CE)

Scythians and other northern peoples: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians and other Pontic peoples: Herodotos on the "most ignorant peoples of all" (fifth century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Hyperboreans: Diodoros on some northerners (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Persians: Isocrates on the superiority of the Athenian people (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians, Thracians, Celts, and Persians: Plato on heavy-drinking and war-like peoples (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Adventures of Andrew and Matthias among the Man-eaters as ethnographic fiction (third-fifth centuries CE)

Scythians: Aischines' ethnic invective against Demosthenes (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Alexander Polyhistor on Iamians and just Abians (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians: Greek depictions of Scythian archers on Attic pottery (sixth century BCE)

Scythians: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Trogus on Scythian superiority (first century BCE)

Sogdians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's assessment of their noble and courageous character (first century CE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their "savage" character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Thracians, Galatians, Daans, and others: Polybios on the mixed composition of the armies of Ptolemy IV and Antiochos III (second century BCE)

Thracians, Getians, Paionians, and others: Herodotos (mid-fifth century BCE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

Thracians: Charon of Lampsakos on relations between Bisaltians and Greek Kardians (mid-fifth century BCE)

Thracians: Diodoros on Dromichaites and Kotys as wise Thracian kings (mid-first century BCE)

Thracians: Tacitus on their uncivilized and wild nature (early second century CE)

Thracians: Theopompos on king Kotys I's obsession with banquets (mid-fourth century BCE)

(b) Southern peoples

Assyrian / Babylonian wisdom: Sibyl of Babylon on the superiority of the Judean people (second century BCE)

Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Celts, and others: The Cicero brothers on the nature and effectiveness of divination (mid-first century BCE)

Axumite perspectives: Inscription by the king of Axum on the Ethiopian and Arabian peoples he conquered (late-second or early-third century CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Barbaria's inhabitants, Arabians, and Indians: Anonymous author on trade and peoples on the Erythraian sea all the way to eastern India (mid-first century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Barbarians and Greeks: Eratosthenes challenges the dichotomy (third century BCE)

Carthaginians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Carthaginians: Plato, Aristotle, Polybios and others on their character and communal organization (fourth century BCE on)

Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, and Judeans: Aristides of Athens (second century CE)

Cretans, Spartans, Carthaginians, and Romans: Polybios on superior and inferior societal organization (second century BCE)

Egyptian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Egyptian perspectives: Chairemon on Egyptian temple functionaries and the astral significance of gods (first century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Isidoros' hymns in praise of the goddess Hermouthis and legendary pharaohs (early first century BCE)

Egyptian perspectives: Manetho on "Egyptian Matters" (early third century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Alexander Romance on king Nektanebos the astrologer and diviner (fourth century CE and earlier)

Egyptian wisdom: Apuleius on Zatchlas the Egyptian prophet who calls up the dead (late second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Cicero, Diodoros and Valerius Maximus on Pythagoras' and Plato's supposed journeys to Egypt (first centuries BCE and CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Lucian's story about Eukrates and Pankrates (late second century CE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plato on Solon, the Egyptian priest, and Atlantis (mid-fourth century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Plato's Socrates on the discoveries of the Egyptian god Thoth (fourth century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Thessalos on king Nechepsos and an Egyptian priest (first or second century CE)

Egyptians, Taurians, and Celts: Cicero's Philus engages in ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Ammianus on their "dark" complexion and insubordinate behaviour (late fourth century CE)

Egyptians: Ammonios' papyrus letter on "inhuman Egyptians" (third century CE)

Egyptians: Cicero on superstition and animal-worship (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Herodotos on customs and legendary kings (fifth century BCE)

Egyptians: Josephos on animal worship (late first century CE)

Egyptians: Strabo on animal gods and accompanying rites (early first century CE)

Egyptians: The Judean tale of Joseph and Aseneth on rejecting Egyptian gods and on intermarriage (ca. first century CE)

Ethiopians and Thracians: Xenophon of Kolophon theorizes human representations of gods (sixth century BCE)

Ethiopians or Nubians: Athenian-style pottery depictions of darker-skinned subjects (sixth-fifth centuries BCE)

Ethiopians or Nubians: Pottery from Athens and Greek cities of Italy depicting a darker-skinned youth devoured by a crocodile (fifth-fourth centuries BCE)

Ethiopians, Nubians, and Egyptians: Christian authors picturing darker-skinned peoples as "demons" (second century CE on)

Ethiopians: Alexander Polyhistor on Memnonians as wild and war-like (mid-first century BCE)

Ethiopians: Aristokreon on a people ruled by a dog (mid-third century BCE)

Ethiopians: Artapanos and Josephos on Moses, intermarriage, and the Kushites (second century BCE-first century CE)

Ethiopians: Palladios and others on Abba Moses the former bandit with darker skin (fourth-fifth centuries CE)

Ethiopians: Strabo on a hard lifestyle in a harsh environment (early first century CE)

Ethnic diversity in Libya / Africa: Sallust on legends of migration (mid-first century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Germans, Britons, and Indians: Strabo on travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of information (early first century CE)

Greek diasporas and indigenous Libyans: Herodotos on tales of colonization (mid-fifth century BCE)

Indian wisdom: Alexander Polyhistor and Clement of Alexandria (VII) on the Brahmans and naked sages (first century BCE / late second century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on "unbelievable" peoples (first century CE)

Indians: Curtius Rufus on the environment and the peoples (first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, and Egyptians: Epiktetos engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Celts, Scythians and others: Plutarch on the "barbarian" origins of fearing the gods, or "superstition" (early second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Apuleius self-identifies as a barbarian and Numidian / Gaetulian (mid-second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Cornelius Fronto self-identifies as a "barbarian" and Libyan nomad (mid-second century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Ancient and modern composite statue of "The Moor"

Libyans / Africans: Pliny the Elder on various peoples and strange customs (first century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Sallust and Punic sources on the geography and peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans / Africans: Tacitus on Tacfarinas and resistance by Numidians, Maurians, and Musulamians (early second century CE)

Libyans and Ausourianians: Synesios on years of incursions into Cyrenaica (early fifth century CE)

Libyans and Maurians: Corippus' poetic survey of northern African peoples in the tale of John Troglita (after 548 CE)

Libyans, Assyrians and Arabians: Kleodemos and Josephos on Abraham and Keturah's descendants and their many colonies (second or first century BCE on)

Libyans, Egyptians, Iberians, and Celts: Diodoros on Herakles' civilizing expeditions (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans, Iberians, and Celts: Cicero on controlling "savage" peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans, Maurians and Ausourianians: Ammianus Marcellinus on their savage behaviour and banditry (late fourth century CE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Hanno the Carthaginian (fourth century BCE or earlier)

Medes, Assyrians, Baktrians, and others: Herodotos on the mixed composition of the Persian army under Xerxes (fifth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria's poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pliny the Elder on inventors around the world (first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Polemon theorizes the meaning of physical features (second / fifth centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Aristotle theorizes the meaning of physical features (third century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos' Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 1] on defeat, capture, and subjugation (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 3] on kneeling in supplication or adoration (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Vitruvius on the effects of climate (first century BCE)

Persian and Babylonian wisdom: Pseudo-Demokritos and others on Demokritos' training by Magians and Chaldeans (first century BCE on)

Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Celtic wisdom: Dio of Prusa on philosophers' roles in leadership (late first century CE)

Persians, Celts, Thracians, and others: Polyainos on "tricky" barbarians (mid-second century CE)

Phoenicians and Sardinians: Cicero's ethnic invective in defending Marcus Scaurus (mid-first century BCE)

Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and others: Minucius Felix's ethnographic defence of the Christian people (early third century CE)

Scythians and Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros theorize about the effects of climate (second-first centuries CE)

Thracians, Galatians, Daans, and others: Polybios on the mixed composition of the armies of Ptolemy IV and Antiochos III (second century BCE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

Troglodytes: Graffiti and inscriptions from the Red Sea area thanking Pan / Min for rescue from Cave-dwellers (second century BCE)

Arkadians: Polybios theorizes environment and peoplehood (second century BCE)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Baliaridians and other barbarian peoples off Iberia: Diodoros on their paradoxical customs (mid-first century BCE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Celtiberians, Iberians, and Lusitanians: Diodoros on their customs and military skill (mid-first century BCE)

Celts, Iberians, and Libyans: Polybios on the mixed composition of Hannibal of Carthage's army and on military equipment (second century BCE)

Celts: Livy on legends of the Gauls' fourth century BCE migrations and an invasion of Rome (late first century BCE)

Cretans, Spartans, Carthaginians, and Romans: Polybios on superior and inferior societal organization (second century BCE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Europeans, Asians, and Greeks: Aristotle on hierarchies, slaves, and environmental determinism (fourth century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Iapygians and Tarentines: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Iberians and others: Avienus on a journey along the southern coast of Spain (mid-fourth century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria on Viriathus and resistance by Lusitanians (second century CE)

Iberians: Artemidoros, Poseidonios, Strabo, and others (second century BCE to first century CE)

Iberians: Diodoros on Viriathus and the Lusitanians' resistance to Roman rule (mid-first century BCE)

Iberians: Trogus on their extreme courage (first century BCE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on "unbelievable" peoples (first century CE)

Italian and Roman diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, and Egyptians: Epiktetos engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century CE)

Libyans, Egyptians, Iberians, and Celts: Diodoros on Herakles' civilizing expeditions (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans, Iberians, and Celts: Cicero on controlling "savage" peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Ligurians: Diodoros on their harsh environment, hard work and noble spirit (mid-first century BCE)

Lydian diasporas: Herodotos, Timaios of Tauromenion, and others on legends of migration to Tyrrhenia (late fourth century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria's poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Polemon theorizes the meaning of physical features (second / fifth centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos' Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 1] on defeat, capture, and subjugation (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 2] on humiliated captives kneeling or on the ground (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 3] on kneeling in supplication or adoration (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Parthians, Celts and Iberians or Germans: Scenes on the breastplate of the "Augustus of Prima Porta" (early first century CE)

People on an idyllic island in the Atlantic off Libya: Diodoros on their natural resources and on Carthaginian colonization plans (mid-first century BCE)

Persians, Celts, Thracians, and others: Polyainos on "tricky" barbarians (mid-second century CE)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Romans: Diodoros on Herakles' journey to Rome before Rome (mid-first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins, Italic peoples, and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on the supposed Roman refusal of barbarian and Phrygian customs (late first century BCE)

Sikelians, Sikanians, Sardinians and Iolaeians: Diodoros on ancient migrations and local customs on Sicily (mid-first century BCE)

Tyrrhenians: Theopompos on the Etruscans' supposed sexual deviance and freedom (mid-fourth century BCE)

Western peoples beyond the pillars of Herakles (and up): Lucian's "A True Story" and ethnographic fiction (late second century CE)

(d) Eastern peoples

Amalekites: Josephos and Philo on a prototypical arch-enemy people (first century CE)

Arabians and Aramaians: Poseidonios on relations between eastern peoples (first century BCE)

Arabians and Erembians: Poseidonios, Strabo and others on obscure peoples mentioned by Homer (early first century CE)

Arabians and Judeans: Jubilees, Molon, and Josephos on identifying the Ishmaelites (second century BCE on)

Arabians, Trogodytes, and peoples around the Red Sea: Eratosthenes, Artemidoros, and Strabo on their locations and customs (early first century CE)

Arabians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on peoples of Arabia Felix on the eastern coast of the Red Sea (second-first centuries BCE)

Arabians: Ammianus Marcellinus on the customs of Saracens (late fourth century CE)

Arabians: Strabo and Josephos on Itureans as a supposed bandit-people (first century CE)

Arabians: Strabo and others on Aelius Gallus' expeditions and the imperial purposes of ethnographic knowledge (early first century CE)

Arianians, Gedrosians, and Karmanians: Eratosthenes and Strabo on their locations and some customs (early first century CE)

Armenians / Parthians: Statue of the client king Tiridates I in the Louvre (66 CE)

Armenians: Kyrsilos and Strabo on a Thessalian origin story, on worship of Anahita and on supposed sacred prostitution (early first century CE)

Asian Albanians, Iberians, Mardians and others: Demodamas and Pliny the Elder on peoples in the Caucasus region and further east (third century BCE / first century CE)

Assyrian / Babylonian wisdom: Sibyl of Babylon on the superiority of the Judean people (second century BCE)

Assyrian and Egyptian wisdom: Platonic author on Greek perfection of barbarian astral observation (late-fourth century BCE)

Assyrians, Babylonians, and surrounding peoples: Strabo on their customs (early first century CE)

Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Celts, and others: The Cicero brothers on the nature and effectiveness of divination (mid-first century BCE)

Assyrians, Medes and Persians: Ktesias on Persian Matters via Diodoros and Photios (early fourth century BCE)

Assyrians: Trogus on the achievements of Ninos and Semiramis and on the extreme effeminacy of Sardanapalus (first century BCE)

Babylonian / Persian wisdom: Philodemos, Seneca, and others on Chaldeans / Magians at Plato's death (first century BCE on)

Babylonian diasporas: Hippolytos and Epiphanios on legends of migration from Babel (third-fourth centuries CE)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Gellius on Favorinus' speech against Chaldean astrology (mid-second century CE)

Babylonian wisdom: Lucian's Menippos visits Mithrobarzanes the Chaldean / Magian wise man (late second century CE)

Baktrians, Sogdians, and some "completely barbarous" eastern peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Barbaria's inhabitants, Arabians, and Indians: Anonymous author on trade and peoples on the Erythraian sea all the way to eastern India (mid-first century CE)

Barbarian and Judean wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [V] on the sources of Plato's thought (late second century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Caesarius of Nazianzos' and George the Monk's collection of extraordinary customs (sixth / ninth centuries CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Barbarian wisdom: Celsus and Origen of Alexandria (second-third centuries CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Clement of Alexandria [VI] on barbarian and Hebrew philosophy (late second century CE)

Barbarian wisdom: Poseidonios on inventors of the golden age (first century BCE)

Britons, Armenians, Bessians, and others: Reliefs of subjugated peoples at Aphrodisias (first century CE)

Celtic, Indian, and Assyrian wisdom: Polyhistor on Pythagoras' education by wise barbarians (first century BCE)

Celts, Persians, and Amazons: Smaller statues of fighting and dying "barbarians" associated with Attalos of Pergamon (third-second century BCE / second century CE)

Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, and Judeans: Aristides of Athens (second century CE)

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Daans, Kadousians, Hyrkanians, and Sakians: Strabo on peoples east of the Caspian Sea (first century CE)

Eastern and northern peoples: Bardaisan of Edessa's Book of the Laws of Countries, Pseudo-Clementines, and Origen on astrology and peoples (second-third centuries CE)

Egyptian and Persian wisdom: Plutarch on the "barbarian-lover" Herodotos (early second century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Isidoros' hymns in praise of the goddess Hermouthis and legendary pharaohs (early first century BCE)

Egyptian wisdom: Cicero, Diodoros and Valerius Maximus on Pythagoras' and Plato's supposed journeys to Egypt (first centuries BCE and CE)

Egyptian, Phoenician, and Phrygian wisdom: Ephoros on inventors (mid-fourth century BCE)

Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Phoenicians: Julius Africanus on competitive chronologies (ca. 222 CE)

Egyptians, Phrygians, Assyrians and Persians: Firmicus Maternus on impious customs (mid-fourth century CE)

Egyptians: Cicero on superstition and animal-worship (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Josephos on the envy of an inferior people (last-first century CE)

Egyptians: Strabo on animal gods and accompanying rites (early first century CE)

Ethiopians and Arabians: Nonnosos on Saracens and on a hairy people (sixth century CE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Europeans, Asians, and Greeks: Aristotle on hierarchies, slaves, and environmental determinism (fourth century BCE)

Gauls, Kimbrians, Numidians, Indians, and others: Valerius Maximus' collection of "barbarian customs" (early first century CE)

Germans, Britons, and Indians: Strabo on travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of information (early first century CE)

Huns and Alans: Ammianus Marcellinus on "savage" nomadic threats (late fourth century CE)

Iberians, Albanians and others of the Caucasus area: Strabo (early first century CE)

Ichthyophagians: Nearchos and Agatharchides on Fish-eaters around the Arabian Sea (fourth-first centuries BCE)

Idumean diasporas: Inscriptions and papyri (second century BCE-third century CE)

Indian and Judean wisdom: Klearchos citing Aristotle (fourth century BCE)

Indian and Persian wisdom: Deinon of Kolophon, Cicero, and Plutarch on Alexander, the naked philosophers, and Kalanos (early second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Alexander Polyhistor and Clement of Alexandria (VII) on the Brahmans and naked sages (first century BCE / late second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Apuleius on the amazing naked philosophers and Pythagoras' journeys (mid-second century CE)

Indian wisdom: Naked philosophers and wise diviners in the Alexander Romance (fourth century CE and earlier)

Indians and peoples on the way: Diodoros on Alexander's conquests (mid-first century BCE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on "unbelievable" peoples (first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, and Celts: Dio of Prusa critiques foreign imports and luxury (late first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, Celts, and Scythians: Ephoros on a four-fold division of the known world (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians, Taprobanians, and Serians: Pliny the Elder on numerous peoples and customs in India and beyond (first century CE)

Indians: Bardaisan of Edessa on Indian ambassadors' tales and the Brahmans (early third century CE)

Indians: Curtius Rufus on the environment and the peoples (first century CE)

Indians: Diodoros on environment, customs and social organization (mid-first century BCE)

Indians: Eratosthenes and Strabo on legendary Nysaians and Sibians (third century BCE / early first century CE)

Indians: Greek representations of conquest on coins with Alexander of Macedon and Demetrios of Baktria wearing elephant skins (fourth-second century BCE)

Indians: Ktesias on Indian Matters via Photios, Pliny the Elder, and Aelian (early fourth century BCE)

Indians: Megasthenes, Aristoboulos, Onesikritos, and Strabo on Indian customs and on Brahmans (fourth century BCE-early first century CE)

Indians: Nearchos, Megasthenes, and Arrian (fourth century BCE-second century CE)

Indians: Phylarchos on roots for sexual restraint (early second century BCE)

Isaurians: Ammianus Marcellinus on their incursions and banditry (late fourth century CE)

Judean and Israelite diasporas: Inscriptional evidence (second century BCE-third century CE)

Judean diasporas: Differing perspectives on violent clashes between Judeans and Greeks in Libya and Egypt under Trajan, ca. 115-117 CE (second-fourth centuries CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos on conflicts in Babylonia, ca. 40-66 CE (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Josephos on tensions with Greeks in Syria, the Decapolis, and Alexandria ca. 59-66 CE (late first century CE)

Judean diasporas: Philo on conflicts with Greeks at Alexandria and on rebellious Egyptians (mid-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Anonymous on Abraham's contributions (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Aristoboulos on Moses and the Judean god as source for Plato and Pythagoras (mid-second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Artapanos on contributions by Abraham, Joseph, and Moses (second century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Eupolemos on contributions by Abraham and Moses (before the mid-first century BCE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Abraham's dissemination of astrological knowledge (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos on Solomon as the ultimate wise man, controller of lower spirits, and healer (late-first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos' Against Apion in full (late first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the superiority of Moses and Judean ancestral customs (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Philo on the Therapeutists' lifestyle (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clement on a journey to Peter the Judean sage (third century CE and on)

Judean wisdom: Pseudo-Clementines on Abraham the astrologer and legends of migration (second-fourth centuries CE)

Judean wisdom: Tatian the Assyrian on the priority of Moses' "barbarian wisdom" (second century CE)

Judean wisdom: Testament of Solomon on Solomon's superiority in controlling lower spirits and in healing (first-third century CE)

Judean wisdom: Theophrastos on Judean philosophers (fourth century BCE)

Judean, Persian, and Indian wisdom: Philo on the freedom of Essenes and Kalanos (early first century CE)

Judeans and Celts: Various authors on Claudius' actions against foreigners in the 40s CE (second / third centuries CE

Judeans and Thracians: Hermippos of Smyrna on their influence on Pythagoras (early second century BCE)

Judeans, "Asiatics", and Greeks: Cicero's ethnic invective aimed at eastern witnesses against Flaccus (mid-first century BCE)

Judeans, Egyptians, and Magians: Various authors on Tiberius' actions against foreign practices 17-19 CE (first-third centuries CE)

Judeans, Syrians, and Egyptians: Epiktetos engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Celts, Scythians and others: Plutarch on the "barbarian" origins of fearing the gods, or "superstition" (early second century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Indians, and others: Porphyry of Tyre on abstinence from meat (third century CE)

Judeans: Agatharchides of Knidos on the Sabbath (second century BCE)

Judeans: Kleomedes denigrates Epicurus and Judeans (second century CE)

Judeans: Manetho, Chairemon, and Lysimachos on an alternative Exodus (third century BCE on)

Judeans: Mnaseas, Poseidonios, Apollonios Molon, Diodoros, Apion, and Damokritos on the statue of a donkey and on human sacrifice (second century BCE and on)

Judeans: Pliny the Elder and Julius Solinus on the Essenes beside the Dead Sea (first / third centuries CE)

Judeans: Pseudo-Hekataios' <i>On Judeans</i> (pre-first century CE)

Judeans: Strabo on decline after Moses and banditry (early first century CE)

Judeans: Tacitus on Judean origins and customs and on the revolt(second century CE)

Karmanians, Ichthyophagians, and others: Nearchos, Onesikritos, Juba, and Pliny on the area around the Persian Gulf and Red Sea (fourth century BCE-first century CE)

Kolchians, Heniochians, Drillians, and others: Arrian on his journey along the Black Sea coast near the Caucasus mountains (ca. 131-132 CE)

Lelegians: Plutarch on Greek Trallians' treatment of indigenous peoples (early second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Apuleius self-identifies as a barbarian and Numidian / Gaetulian (mid-second century CE)

Libyans, Assyrians and Arabians: Kleodemos and Josephos on Abraham and Keturah's descendants and their many colonies (second or first century BCE on)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Lycians, Lydians, and Egyptians: Pseudo-Plutarch on the effeminacy of grief (third-fourth centuries CE)

Lycians: Menekrates of Xanthos and Polycharmos on Lycian origins and the practice of fish-divination (late fifth century BCE on)

Lydian diasporas: Herodotos, Timaios of Tauromenion, and others on legends of migration to Tyrrhenia (late fourth century BCE on)

Lydians, Maionians, Arimians, and Solymians: Strabo on a variety of peoples in Lydia, Phrygia and Pisidia (early first century CE)

Lydians: Herodotos on king Croesus and Lydian customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Mardians among Persians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's conquest of an uncivilized cave people (first century CE)

Medes, Assyrians, Baktrians, and others: Herodotos on the mixed composition of the Persian army under Xerxes (fifth century BCE)

Medes: Diodoros on Datis and legends of an Athenian-Median connection (mid-first century BCE)

Medes: Nearchos and Strabo on neighbouring bandit-peoples and on Median customs (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Diodoros, Pliny and Plutarch on Pompey's subjugation of peoples of the world (mid-first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria's poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Ovid on identifying personified peoples in art to impress a girl (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pliny the Elder on inventors around the world (first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Polemon theorizes the meaning of physical features (second / fifth centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos' Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 1] on defeat, capture, and subjugation (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 2] on humiliated captives kneeling or on the ground (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Roman coins [part 3] on kneeling in supplication or adoration (first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Vitruvius on the effects of climate (first century BCE)

Midianites and Moabites / Arabians: Josephos and Philo on intermixing and the dangers of acculturation (first century CE)

Mysians, Galatians, Pisidians, and others: Strabo on relations among Anatolian peoples (early first century CE)

Panchaians: Euhemeros and Diodoros on a noble people worshipping Zeus on a utopian island (fourth / first century BCE)

Parapamisadians: Curtius Rufus on peoples east of Baktria (first century CE)

Parthians and Scythians: Julius Africanus on barbarian military techniques (early third century CE)

Parthians, Celts and Iberians or Germans: Scenes on the breastplate of the "Augustus of Prima Porta" (early first century CE)

Parthians, Libyans, Egyptians and others: Acts of the Apostles on legends of Judean migration (early second century CE)

Parthians, Medes, and Babylonians: Pliny the Elder (first century CE)

Parthians: Curtius Rufus on their Scythian origins (first century CE)

Parthians: Kneeling colossal support statues in eastern garb (first century CE)

Parthians: Panamara inscription on Zeus' miraculous actions against invading Parthians (ca. 39 BCE)

Parthians: Poseidonios on royal banquets (first century BCE)

Parthians: Scenes from the Arch of Septimius Severus (early third century CE)

Parthians: Trogus on the origins and developments of an empire (first century BCE)

Persian / Hyperborean wisdom: Anonymous author on Gobryas the Magian and the bronze tablets about death and judgment (first century BCE)

Persian and Babylonian wisdom: Pseudo-Demokritos and others on Demokritos' training by Magians and Chaldeans (first century BCE on)

Persian wisdom: Aristoxenos of Tarentum on Pythagoras and Zoroaster (late fourth century BCE)

Persian wisdom: Celsus and Origen on Magians and on Moses and Jesus as howlers of chants (second-third centuries CE)

Persian wisdom: Euboulos and Porphyry of Tyre on Zoroaster and the cave (third century CE)

Persian wisdom: Eudemos of Rhodes on Magians (fourth century BCE)

Persian wisdom: Lactantius and others on the Oracles of Hystaspes the Mede (third century CE)

Persian wisdom: Plutarch's story about Kleombrotos' journeys (early second century CE)

Persian wisdom: Theopompos of Chios and Plutarch on Magians and Zoroaster (fourth century BCE and later)

Persian, Babylonian, and Indian wisdom: Pseudo-Lucian on long-living sages and peoples (third century CE and earlier)

Persian, Babylonian, and Scythian wisdom: Diogenes of Laertes refutes Magian and Chaldean origins for Greek philosophy (early third century CE)

Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Celtic wisdom: Dio of Prusa on philosophers' roles in leadership (late first century CE)

Persians and Medes: Douris, Herakleides, Klearchos, and others on royal banquets (fifth-fourth centuries BCE)

Persians and neighbouring eastern peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on Persian territories and lifestyles (late fourth century CE)

Persians and Thessalians: Lucan compares Thessalian women's techniques to Magian ones (mid-first century CE)

Persians, Celts, Thracians, and others: Polyainos on "tricky" barbarians (mid-second century CE)

Persians, Hyrkanians, Armenians, Derbikians and others: Curtius Rufus on the mixed composition of the army of Darius III (first century CE)

Persians, Spartans, and Athenians: Platonic author on the superiority of the Persians (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Thracians, and Amazons: Isocrates on Athenian superiority and barbarian weakness (fourth century BCE)

Persians, Tyrrhenians and Lycians: Plutarch on brave women and effeminate men (early second century CE)

Persians: Acts of Archelaos on Mani's foreignness (early fourth century CE)

Persians: Aeschylus on "barbarian" hierarchy, luxury, and emotionalism (472 BCE)

Persians: Agathias on the divergent customs of Zoroaster's Magians (sixth century CE and earlier)

Persians: Apion of Alexandria on Pases the Magian (first century CE)

Persians: Cattulus' poem smearing Magians as incestuous (early first century BCE)

Persians: Curtius Rufus on military processions and royal luxury (first century CE)

Persians: Derveni papyrus on the activities of Magians (ca. 400 BCE)

Persians: Diodoros on expansionism and arrogance of Persian kings (mid-first century BCE)

Persians: Emperor Diocletian on strange and monstrous Manicheans (ca. 300 CE)

Persians: Hippokratic author on the "sacred" disease and Magian attempts at healing (ca. 400 BCE)

Persians: Matthew and Luke-Acts on two contrasting approaches to Magians (late first century CE)

Persians: Maximus of Tyre on "barbarizing" and the excesses of royal pleasure (late second century CE)

Persians: Plato on Persian decline into effeminacy and tyranny (early fourth century BCE)

Persians: Pliny on the dissemination of Magian skill to the peoples of the world (first century CE)

Persians: Trogus, Diodoros, and Curtius Rufus on Alexander of Macedon's decline into eastern ways (first century BCE on)

Persians: Varro on Pythagoras' and Numa's adoption of Persian forms of divination (first century BCE / early fifth century CE)

Persians: Vitruvius theorizes about Greek depictions of enemies in architectural contexts (first century BCE)

Persians: Xanthos on the Magians' supposed incest and on Zoroaster's date (mid-fifth century BCE)

Phoenician diasporas: Timaios of Tauromenion, Trogus, and Appian on Tyrians, on the founding of Carthage and on child sacrifice (first century BCE)

Phoenician perspectives: Philo of Byblos on "Phoenician Matters" (early second century CE)

Phoenician wisdom: Ampelius on Mochos of Sidon (early-third century CE)

Phoenician wisdom: Eudemos of Rhodes and Mochos of Sidon on the universe (fourth century BCE)

Phoenician wisdom: Strabo and Poseidonios on Mochos of Sidon (first century BCE)

Phoenician, Egyptian and Babylonian wisdom: Porphyry of Tyre and Antonius Diogenes on Pythagoras (third century CE)

Phoenician, Egyptian and Persian wisdom: Iamblichos of Chalkis on Pythagoras (fourth century CE)

Phoenicians and Sardinians: Cicero's ethnic invective in defending Marcus Scaurus (mid-first century BCE)

Phoenicians: Gospel of Mark on Jesus and a Syro-Phoenician woman (late first century CE)

Phoenicians: Herodotos on customs and colonizing efforts (fifth century BCE)

Phoenicians: Strabo on the achievements of Tyrians and Sidonians (early first century CE)

Phrygians: Diodoros on Battakes the priest of the great Mother visiting Rome (mid-first century BCE)

Phrygians: Euripides' cowardly and inferior easterner via the slave character in Orestes (408 BCE)

Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and others: Minucius Felix's ethnographic defence of the Christian people (early third century CE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins, Italic peoples, and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Samaritans and Judeans: Belonging to Israel in the Gospels (first century CE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Persians: Isocrates on the superiority of the Athenian people (early fourth century BCE)

Serians (Chinese), Ottorokorians and others: Pliny the Elder on the savage silk people (first century CE)

Sogdians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's assessment of their noble and courageous character (first century CE)

Spartans and Judeans: First Maccabees' and Josephos' claims about kinship ties (ca. 100 BCE / ca. 90s CE)

Syrian and Phoenician diasporas: Inscriptional and archeological evidence

Syrian diasporas: Diodoros and Florus on Eunous of Apameia's leadership of the slave rebellion on Sicily (mid-first century BCE / second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian of Samosata on The Syrian Goddess in full (mid-second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian self-identifies as "barbarian" and "Assyrian" (mid-second century CE)

Syrians, Persians, Indians, Libyans, and others: Hekataios of Miletos on peoples of Asia (sixth century BCE)

Syrians: Apuleius on "effeminate" priests of Atargatis (late second century CE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their "savage" character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Thracians, Galatians, Daans, and others: Polybios on the mixed composition of the armies of Ptolemy IV and Antiochos III (second century BCE)

Thracians, Scythians, and others: Anonymous author on opposing views and the relativity of what is shameful or good (mid-fourth century BCE [?])

Trojans, Lelegians, and Kilikians: Homer and Strabo on legendary peoples and migrations of historical peoples in Anatolia (early first century CE)

Abians (subset of Scythians)

Scythian wisdom: Curtius Rufus on the Scythian elder's speech about Alexander the bandit (first century CE)

Aborigines (Italic people)

Italic peoples: Antiochos of Syracuse on migrations of peoples to and within Italy (late fifth century BCE)

Italic peoples: Cato, Livy, and Florus on Sabines, Samnites, and others (early second century BCE on)

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins, Italic peoples, and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Adrestians (subset of Indians)

Indians and peoples on the way: Diodoros on Alexander's conquests (mid-first century BCE)

Aiolians / Aeolians (subset of Greeks)

Babylonian diasporas: Josephos and other Judeans on legends of migration from Babel (first-second centuries CE)

Judeans, "Asiatics", and Greeks: Cicero's ethnic invective aimed at eastern witnesses against Flaccus (mid-first century BCE)

Pelasgian diasporas: Hekataios of Miletos and Herodotos on legends of migration, language, and influence (sixth century BCE)

Trojans, Lelegians, and Kilikians: Homer and Strabo on legendary peoples and migrations of historical peoples in Anatolia (early first century CE)

Aitolians / Aetolians (subset of Greeks)

Aitolians: Ephoros on their origins and invincibility (mid-fourth century BCE)

Aitolians: Thucydides on barbarous Greeks (late fifth century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Thucydides theorizes the shift from barbarian banditry to settled civilization (late fifth century BCE)

Alans / Halani

Huns and Alans: Ammianus Marcellinus on "savage" nomadic threats (late fourth century CE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their "savage" character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Albanians of the Caucasus area

Asian Albanians, Iberians, Mardians and others: Demodamas and Pliny the Elder on peoples in the Caucasus region and further east (third century BCE / first century CE)

Germans, Britons, and Indians: Strabo on travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of information (early first century CE)

Iberians, Albanians and others of the Caucasus area: Strabo (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Diodoros, Pliny and Plutarch on Pompey's subjugation of peoples of the world (mid-first century BCE on)

Albans (Italic people)

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Alexandrians (in Egypt)

Egyptian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Allobrogians (subset of "Germans" or Celts)

Celts and Ligurians: Strabo on peoples south of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts: Appian of Alexandria on their character and on ambassadorial relations with Romans (second century CE)

Celts: Cicero on Gauls and the link between imperial conquest and negative stereotypes (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Cicero's ethnic invective against Gauls in defending Fonteius (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Strabo on peoples northwest of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts: Timagenes of Alexandria and Ammianus Marcellinus on Celtic origins and customs (first century BCE / fourth century CE)

Amalekites (associated with Canaanites / Phoenicians / inhabitants south of Judah)

Amalekites: Josephos and Philo on a prototypical arch-enemy people (first century CE)

Amazons (legendary subset of Scythians)

Amazons, Tibarenians, and Mossynoikians: Apollonios of Rhodes on a voyage to the Kolchians (third century BCE)

Amazons: Curtius Rufus on Alexander's relationship with Thalestris (first century CE)

Amazons: Greek artistic depictions of a female warrior people (fourth century BCE to second century CE)

Amazons: Strabo on their customs and northern location (late first century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Caesarius of Nazianzos' and George the Monk's collection of extraordinary customs (sixth / ninth centuries CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of "barbarian customs" (fifth century BCE on)

Britons, Armenians, Bessians, and others: Reliefs of subjugated peoples at Aphrodisias (first century CE)

Celts, Persians, and Amazons: Smaller statues of fighting and dying "barbarians" associated with Attalos of Pergamon (third-second century BCE / second century CE)

Eastern and northern peoples: Bardaisan of Edessa's Book of the Laws of Countries, Pseudo-Clementines, and Origen on astrology and peoples (second-third centuries CE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on competing claims about the god Dionysos (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mysians, Galatians, Pisidians, and others: Strabo on relations among Anatolian peoples (early first century CE)

Persians, Thracians, and Amazons: Isocrates on Athenian superiority and barbarian weakness (fourth century BCE)

Sarmatians and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples of northwestern Asia (first century CE)

Scythians and other northern peoples: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians and other Pontic peoples: Herodotos on the "most ignorant peoples of all" (fifth century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Hyperboreans: Diodoros on some northerners (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Persians: Isocrates on the superiority of the Athenian people (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Trogus on Scythian superiority (first century BCE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their "savage" character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Apulians (Italic people)

Italic peoples: Strabo on Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, Lucanians, and others (early first century CE)

Aquitanians

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Arabians

Arabians and Aramaians: Poseidonios on relations between eastern peoples (first century BCE)

Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World: The Websites of Philip A. Harland

Portal to my podcast, websites, blog, and publications, providing an entryway into social and cultural life anong Greeks, Romans, Judeans, Christians, and others in ancient Mediterranean. Ethnicity, Diaspora, and relations among ethnic and minority groups is a focus.

Category Archives: (01) Non-dominant (“barbarian”) perspectives on peoples (except Judeans)

Arabians and Judeans: Jubilees, Molon, and Josephos on identifying the Ishmaelites (second century BCE on)

Axumite perspectives: Inscription by the king of Axum on the Ethiopian and Arabian peoples he conquered (late-second or early-third century CE)

Babylonian perspectives: Bel-re’ushu / Berossos on the origins of civilization (late fourth century BCE)

Babylonian wisdom: Iamblichos on Mesopotamian legends and his training in Magian skills (mid-second century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Chairemon on Egyptian temple functionaries and the astral significance of gods (first century CE)

Egyptian perspectives: Isidoros’ hymns in praise of the goddess Hermouthis and legendary pharaohs (early first century BCE)

Egyptian perspectives: Manetho on “Egyptian Matters” (early third century BCE)

Egyptian perspectives: Memphites on the goddess Isis and the origins of civilization among Egyptians (first century BCE on)

Egyptian perspectives: Oracles of the Lamb and the Potter on Greco-Macedonians and other foreigners (third-second centuries BCE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Apuleius self-identifies as a barbarian and Numidian / Gaetulian (mid-second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Cornelius Fronto self-identifies as a “barbarian” and Libyan nomad (mid-second century CE)

Libyan perspectives: Juba of Numidia on ethnographic matters (late first century BCE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia on kings and luxurious customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Phoenician perspectives: Philo of Byblos on “Phoenician Matters” (early second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian of Samosata on The Syrian Goddess in full (mid-second century CE)

Syrian perspectives: Lucian self-identifies as “barbarian” and “Assyrian” (mid-second century CE)