Category Archives: (02) Greek and Roman perspectives and stereotypes on other peoples

Aitolians: Ephoros on their origins and invincibility (mid-fourth century BCE)

Aitolians: Thucydides on barbarous Greeks (late fifth century BCE)

Amazons, Tibarenians, and Mossynoikians: Apollonios of Rhodes on a voyage to the Kolchians (third century BCE)

Amazons: Curtius Rufus on Alexander’s relationship with Thalestris (first century CE)

Amazons: Strabo on their customs and northern location (late first century CE)

Arabians / Nabateans: Diodoros on Nabatean customs and freedom (mid-first century BCE)

Arabians and Aramaians: Poseidonios on relations between eastern peoples (first century BCE)

Arabians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on peoples of Arabia Felix on the eastern coast of the Red Sea (second-first centuries BCE)

Arabians: Ammianus Marcellinus on the customs of Saracens (late fourth century CE)

Arabians: Herodotos on deities and lifestyle (late fifth century BCE)

Arkadians: Polybios theorizes environment and peoplehood (second century BCE)

Asian Albanians, Iberians, Mardians and others: Demodamas and Pliny the Elder on peoples in the Caucasus region and further east (third century BCE / first century CE)

Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Celts, and others: The Cicero brothers on the nature and effectiveness of divination (mid-first century BCE)

Assyrians, Medes and Persians: Ktesias on Persian Matters via Diodoros and Photios (early fourth century BCE)

Assyrians: Trogus on the achievements of Ninos and Semiramis and on the extreme effeminacy of Sardanapalus (first century BCE)

Atlantians: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on supposed Atlantian stories about the earliest kings / gods (third / mid-first century BCE)

Babylonians and Assyrians: Herodotos on legendary queens and outstanding customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Babylonians: Diodoros on Chaldeans’ astrology and divination (mid-first century BCE)

Baktrians, Sogdians, and some “completely barbarous” eastern peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Baliaridians and other barbarian peoples off Iberia: Diodoros on their paradoxical customs (mid-first century BCE)

Barbaria’s inhabitants, Arabians, and Indians: Anonymous author on trade and peoples on the Erythraian sea all the way to eastern India (mid-first century CE)

Barbarian peoples: Hellanikos, Nymphodoros, Nikolaos, and others with collections of “barbarian customs” (fifth century BCE on)

Barbarians and Greeks: Dionysios theorizes the blurry lines (late first century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Eratosthenes challenges the dichotomy (third century BCE)

Barbarians and Greeks: Thucydides theorizes the shift from barbarian banditry to settled civilization (late fifth century BCE)

Bithynians, Mariandynians, Paphlagonians, and others: Strabo on temple-states and peoples near his Pontic homeland (early first century CE)

Boiotians: Ephoros on the superiority of Boiotia and on a Phoenician connection (mid-fourth century BCE)

Britons and Iernians (Irish): Julius Caesar, Pytheas, and Strabo on customs including eating human flesh (early first century CE)

Britons: Diodoros on a simple way of life (mid-first century BCE)

Britons: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Britons: Tacitus (late first century CE)

Cappadocians: Strabo on their temple-states and supposed desire for subservience (early first century CE)

Carians: Strabo on long-term interactions with Greeks and on “Carianizing” (early first century CE)

Carthaginians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Celtiberians, Iberians, and Lusitanians: Diodoros on their customs and military skill (mid-first century BCE)

Celts and Germans: Diodoros, Dionysios, Strabo, and Dio on distinguishing them (first centuries BCE and CE)

Celts and Germans: Plutarch’s ethnographic digressions in the Lives (early second century CE)

Celts and Ligurians: Strabo on peoples south of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts, Iberians, and Libyans: Polybios on the mixed composition of Hannibal of Carthage’s army and on military equipment (second century BCE)

Celts: Anyte and Parthenios on wife abductions in the Galatian invasion (third-first century BCE)

Celts: Appian of Alexandria on their character and on ambassadorial relations with Romans (second century CE)

Celts: Cicero on Gauls and the link between imperial conquest and negative stereotypes (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Cicero’s ethnic invective against Gauls in defending Fonteius (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Dio Cassius on spirited and untrustworthy Galatians (early third century CE)

Celts: Diodoros on Galatian origins and “savage” customs (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Celts: Julius Caesar on Druids and supposed human sacrifice among Gauls (mid-first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on legends of fourth century BCE migrations and an invasion of Rome (late first century BCE)

Celts: Livy on the Galatian invasion of Asia Minor and the Roman army’s subsequent victory, ca. 189 BCE (late first century BCE)

Celts: Phylarchos and Poseidonios on banqueting and violent customs (first century BCE)

Celts: Pliny the Elder on medicine, rites and Magian skill among Druids (first century CE)

Celts: Pliny the Elder on three Roman subdivisions of Gaul (first century CE)

Celts: Polybios on the Celtic encounter with Rome and on his method in dealing with distant peoples (second century BCE)

Celts: Priene inscription on Galatian “impiety” and “savagery” during the invasion (ca. 278-270 BCE)

Celts: Strabo on peoples northwest of the Alps (early first century CE)

Celts: Thyatira inscription for a son rescued by the god Apollo out from under “the mob of Galatians” (276 BCE)

Celts: Timagenes of Alexandria and Ammianus Marcellinus on Celtic origins and customs (first century BCE / fourth century CE)

Celts: Trogus on Gallic invasions and character (first century BCE)

Cilicians: Plutarch on the foreign “pirates” threatening Roman ways (early-second century CE)

Colchians, Phrygians, and others: Vitruvius theorizes development from primitives to civilized peoples (first century BCE)

Cretans and Cilicians: Athenians, Rhodians, and Romans pair “banditry” with imperial control (fifth-second centuries BCE)

Cretans, Spartans, Carthaginians, and Romans: Polybios on superior and inferior societal organization (second century BCE)

Cretans: Diodoros on Cretan (Greek) contributions to civilization (mid-first century BCE)

Cretans: Ephoros on civic organization and customs (mid-fourth century BCE)

Daans, Kadousians, Hyrkanians, and Sakians: Strabo on peoples east of the Caspian Sea (first century CE)

Dacians and Istrians: Trogus on peoples west of the Black Sea (first century BCE)

Dyrbaians: Ktesias on an extremely just people between Baktria and India (early fourth century BCE)

Egyptians, Taurians, and Celts: Cicero’s Philus engages in ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Achilles Tatius and Dio Cassius on man-eating cowherds / bandits (second-third century CE)

Egyptians: Aelian on Egyptian views and customs about animals and animal-worship (late second century CE)

Egyptians: Ammianus on their “dark” complexion and insubordinate behaviour (late fourth century CE)

Egyptians: Attic vase paintings, Isocrates and others on king Bousiris and human sacrifice (fifth century BCE on)

Egyptians: Cicero on superstition and animal-worship (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Dio Cassius’ speech by Octavian on the “effeminate” Antony (early third century CE)

Egyptians: Diodoros on the origins of civilization and on Egyptian views (mid-first century BCE)

Egyptians: Hekataios of Miletos on encountering Theban priests (late sixth century BCE)

Egyptians: Herodotos on customs and legendary kings (fifth century BCE)

Ethiopians and Arabians: Nonnosos on Saracens and on a hairy people (sixth century CE)

Ethiopians and Thracians: Xenophon of Kolophon theorizes human representations of gods (sixth century BCE)

Ethiopians: Agatharchides and Diodoros on lifestyles and diets in the extreme south (second-first centuries BCE)

Ethiopians: Diodoros on their claims, appearance, and customs (mid-first century BCE)

Ethiopians: Herodotos on southern peoples at the ends of the earth (mid-fifth century BCE)

Europeans and Asians: Pseudo-Hippokrates on humoural and environmental theories (fifth century BCE)

Europeans, Africans, and Asians: Pliny the Elder on the framework for his ethnographic survey and on the superiority of Europeans (first century CE)

Europeans, Asians, and Greeks: Aristotle on hierarchies, slaves, and environmental determinism (fourth century BCE)

Germanic peoples: Tacitus’ Germania in full (late first century CE)

Germans and Sarmatians: Josephos on impulsive and violent northerners (late first century CE)

Germans and Scythians: Seneca on enduring hardships and on anger (first century CE)

Germans, Suebians, Marcomannians, and Kimbrians: Poseidonios and Strabo on customs and rumours about the tides (first century BCE)

Germans: Appian of Alexandria on large, savage and spirited Germans (second century CE)

Germans: Julius Caesar (mid-first century BCE)

Germans: Philo of Alexandria on fighting the tides (first century CE)

Getians, Dacians, and Scythians: Strabo (early first century CE)

Getians, Scythians, and Goths: Jordanes on their supposed origins and achievements (mid-sixth century CE)

Hyperboreans: Herodotos, Hekataios, Diodoros, and others on a legendary northern people (four century BCE to third century CE)

Iapygians and Tarentinians: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Iberians and others: Avienus on a journey along the southern coast of Spain (mid-fourth century CE)

Iberians, Albanians and others of the Caucasus area: Strabo (early first century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Iberians: Appian of Alexandria on Viriathus and resistance by Lusitanians (second century CE)

Iberians: Artemidoros, Poseidonios, Strabo, and others (second century BCE to first century CE)

Iberians: Trogus on their extreme courage (first century BCE)

Ichthyophagians: Nearchos and Agatharchides on Fish-eaters around the Arabian Sea (fourth-first centuries BCE)

Idumeans and Judeans: Ptolemy the historian on the difference (late first century BCE)

Idumeans: Josephos on the Edomites’ origins and relations with Judeans (late first century CE)

Illyrians, Pannonians, and other peoples: Strabo (early first century CE)

Illyrians: Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE)

Illyrians: Theopompos on banquets (fourth century BCE)

Indians, Ethiopians and others: Pliny the Elder on “unbelievable” peoples (first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, and Celts: Dio of Prusa critiques foreign imports and luxury (late first century CE)

Indians, Ethiopians, Celts, and Scythians: Ephoros on a four-fold division of the known world (mid-fourth century BCE)

Indians, Taprobanians, and Serians: Pliny the Elder on numerous peoples and customs in India and beyond (first century CE)

Indians: Aelian on Indian views and customs about animals (late second century CE)

Indians: Bardaisan of Edessa on Indian ambassadors’ tales and the Brahmans (early third century CE)

Indians: Curtius Rufus on the environment and the peoples (first century CE)

Indians: Dio of Prusa on the Indians’ superior mode of life (late first century CE)

Indians: Diodoros on environment, customs and social organization (mid-first century BCE)

Indians: Herodotos on eastern peoples at the ends of the earth (mid-fifth century BCE)

Indians: Hierokles on visiting the Brahmans (fifth century CE or earlier)

Indians: Iamboulos and Diodoros on a utopian island beyond India (mid-first century BCE)

Indians: Ktesias on Indian Matters via Photios, Pliny the Elder, and Aelian (early fourth century BCE)

Indians: Nearchos, Megasthenes, and Arrian (fourth century BCE-second century CE)

Itureans among Arabians: Strabo and Josephos on a supposed bandit-people (first century CE)

Judean wisdom: Josephos’ Against Apion in full (late first century CE)

Judean, Persian, and Indian wisdom: Philo on the freedom of Essenes and Kalanos (early first century CE)

Judeans and Celts: Various authors on Claudius’ actions against foreigners in the 40s CE (second / third centuries CE

Judeans, “Asiatics”, and Greeks: Cicero’s ethnic invective aimed at eastern witnesses against Flaccus (mid-first century BCE)

Judeans, Africans, and Germans: Columella on the limits of environmental theory (first century CE)

Judeans, Egyptians, and Magians: Various authors on Tiberius’ actions against foreign practices 17-19 CE (first-third centuries CE)

Judeans, Egyptians, and others: Seneca on the “superstitions” of foreigners (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, and Egyptians: Epiktetos engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (mid-first century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Celts, Scythians and others: Plutarch on the “barbarian” origins of fearing the gods, or “superstition” (early second century CE)

Judeans, Syrians, Indians, and others: Porphyry of Tyre on abstinence from meat (third century CE)

Judeans: Agatharchides of Knidos on the Sabbath (second century BCE)

Judeans: Dio Cassius and Roman elite attitudes (early third century CE)

Judeans: Hekataios, pseudo-Hekataios and Diodoros on Judean origins and migration with the exodus (first century BCE)

Judeans: Kleomedes denigrates Epicurus and Judeans (second century CE)

Judeans: Manetho, Chairemon, and Lysimachos on an alternative Exodus (third century BCE on)

Judeans: Mnaseas, Poseidonios, Apollonios Molon, Diodoros, Apion, and Damokritos on the statue of a donkey and on human sacrifice (second century BCE and on)

Judeans: Pliny the Elder and Julius Solinus on the Essenes beside the Dead Sea (first / third centuries CE)

Judeans: Poseidonios (?) and Strabo on decline after Moses (first century CE)

Judeans: Pseudo-Hekataios’ On Judeans (pre-first century CE)

Judeans: Tacitus on Judean origins and customs (second century CE)

Judeans: Trogus on contributions of Joseph and Moses and on the exodus (first century BCE)

Judeans: Valerius Maximus on the 139 BCE expulsion with “Chaldeans” (early first century CE)

Karmanians, Ichthyophagians, and others: Nearchos, Onesikritos, Juba, and Pliny on the area around the Persian Gulf (fourth century BCE-first century CE)

Kimmerians and Kolchians: Herodotos on other Pontic peoples (mid-fifth century BCE)

Kolchians, Heniochians, Drillians, and others: Arrian on his journey along the Black Sea coast near the Caucasus mountains (ca. 131-132 CE)

Libyans / Africans: Pliny the Elder on various peoples and strange customs (first century CE)

Libyans / Africans: Sallust and Punic sources on the geography and peoples (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans / Africans: Tacitus on Tacfarinas and resistance by Numidians, Maurians, and Musulamians (early second century CE)

Libyans and Ausourianians: Synesios on years of incursions into Cyrenaica (early fifth century CE)

Libyans and Maurians: Corippus’ poetic survey of northern African peoples in the tale of John Troglita (after 548 CE)

Libyans, Egyptians, Iberians, and Celts: Diodoros on Herakles’ civilizing expeditions (mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Aelian on Libyan views and customs about animals (late second century CE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on competing claims about the god Dionysos (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Dionysios of Mytilene and Diodoros on Nasamonians, Marmaridians, and Libyan Amazons (third / mid-first century BCE)

Libyans: Hanno the Carthaginian (fourth century BCE or earlier)

Libyans: Herodotos on customs and colonization (fifth century BCE)

Ligurians: Diodoros on their harsh environment, hard work and noble spirit (mid-first century BCE)

Lydians: Herodotos on king Croesus and Lydian customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Lydians: Xanthos of Lydia and Klearchos of Soloi (fifth-fourth centuries BCE)

Maiotians, Bosporians, Kaukasians, and other Pontic peoples: Strabo on northern Asia (early first century CE)

Mardians among Persians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander’s conquest of an uncivilized cave people (first century CE)

Medes, Assyrians, Baktrians, and others: Herodotos on the mixed composition of the Persian army under Xerxes (fifth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Artemidoros theorizes foreign elements in dreams (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Augustus on his own achievements, conquests and alliances with peoples (14 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Claudius Ptolemy on astrological effects on peoples (second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Diodoros, Pliny and Plutarch on Pompey’s subjugation of peoples of the world (mid-first century BCE on)

Mediterranean peoples: Dionysios of Alexandria’s poetic Guide to the Inhabited World (117-138 CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Maximus of Tyre on images for the gods as ubiquitous among peoples (late second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Ovid on identifying personified peoples in art to impress a girl (early first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pausanias, ethnographic interests, and local traditions (mid-second century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pomponius Mela on peoples of the known world (mid-first century CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skylax (fourth century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Pseudo-Skymnos’ Voyage Around the Earth for Nikomedes in full (mid-second century BCE)

Mediterranean peoples: Sextus Empiricus engages with ethnographic discourses for philosophical aims (second-third centuries CE)

Mediterranean peoples: Vitruvius on the effects of climate (first century BCE)

Mossynoikians in Pontos: Xenophon and others on the “most barbarous” people (early fourth century BCE)

Mysians / Moesians: Poseidonios on their identification and customs based on Homer (first century BCE)

Mysians, Galatians, Pisidians, and others: Strabo on relations among Anatolian peoples (early first century CE)

Northern peoples: Antonios Diogenes’ “Wonders Beyond Thule” and ethnographic fiction (second century CE / ninth century CE)

Northern peoples: Inscriptions on barbarians as bandits (second-third centuries CE)

Panchaians: Euhemeros and Diodoros on a noble people worshipping Zeus on a utopian island (fourth / first century BCE)

Parapamisadians: Curtius Rufus on peoples east of Baktria (first century CE)

Parthians and Scythians: Julius Africanus on barbarian military techniques (early third century CE)

Parthians, Medes, and Babylonians: Pliny the Elder (first century CE)

Parthians: Arrian on their Scythian origins (second century CE)

Parthians: Curtius Rufus on their Scythian origins (first century CE)

Parthians: Panamara inscription on Zeus’ miraculous actions against invading Parthians (ca. 39 BCE)

Parthians: Poseidonios on royal banquets (first century BCE)

Parthians: Strabo on Scythian origins and military success (early first century CE)

Parthians: Trogus on the origins and developments of an empire (first century BCE)

Pelasgians: Strabo on a legendary migrating people (early first century CE)

People on an idyllic island in the Atlantic off Libya: Diodoros on their natural resources and on Carthaginian colonization plans (mid-first century BCE)

Peoples of Arachosia and Ariana: Pliny the Elder on peoples between Baktria and India (first century CE)

Persians and Egyptians: Pseudo-Clementines on the origins and nature of Magian skill (second-fourth centuries CE)

Persians and Medes: Herakleides of Kyme, Klearchos of Soloi, and others on royal banquets (fourth century BCE)

Persians and Medes: Herodotos on customs (mid-fifth century BCE)

Persians and Medes: Thucydides on Medizing (late-fifth century BCE)

Persians and neighbouring eastern peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on Persian territories and lifestyles (late fourth century CE)

Persians, Hyrkanians, Armenians, Derbikians and others: Curtius Rufus on the mixed composition of the army of Darius III (first century CE)

Persians, Spartans, and Athenians: Platonic author on the superiority of the Persians (fourth century BCE)

Persians: Apuleius of Madaura’s defence against the charge of harmful Magian actions (ca. 158 CE)

Persians: Curtius Rufus on Alexander of Macedon’s supposed decline into eastern ways (first century CE)

Persians: Curtius Rufus on military processions and royal luxury (first century CE)

Persians: Emperor Diocletian on strange and monstrous Manicheans (ca. 300 CE)

Persians: Matthew and Luke-Acts on two contrasting approaches to Magians (late first century CE)

Persians: Maximus of Tyre on “barbarizing” and the excesses of royal pleasure (late second century CE)

Persians: Plato on Persian decline into effeminacy and tyranny (early fourth century BCE)

Persians: Pliny on the dissemination of Magian skill to the peoples of the world (first century CE)

Persians: Suda on Zoroaster and on expertise in Magian practice, wailing incantations, and potions (tenth century CE)

Persians: Trogus on Alexander of Macedon’s acculturation to eastern ways (first century BCE)

Persians: Vitruvius theorizes about Greek depictions of enemies in architectural contexts (first century BCE)

Persians: Xanthos on the Magians’ supposed incest and on Zoroaster’s date (fifth century BCE)

Persians: Xenophon and an anonymous author on royal customs and Cyrus (early fourth century BCE / second century BCE)

Phoenicians and Sardinians: Cicero’s ethnic invective in defending Marcus Scaurus (mid-first century BCE)

Phoenicians: Herodotos on customs and colonizing efforts (fifth century BCE)

Phrygians: Alexander Polyhistor, Hermogenes, and others on Phrygian Matters (first century BCE on)

Romans: Ammianus Marcellinus on the danger of decline into uncivilized lifestyles (late fourth century CE)

Romans: Diodoros on Herakles’ journey to Rome before Rome (mid-first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on Roman origins and legends of Greek and Pelasgian migrations to Italy (late first century BCE)

Romans: Dionysios on the supposed Roman refusal of barbarian and Phrygian customs (late first century BCE)

Samaritans: Josephos on Chuthean origins and relations with Judeans over centuries (late first century CE)

Sarmatians and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples of northwestern Asia (first century CE)

Sarmatians: Tacitus on ferocity and laziness in military situations (early second century CE)

Scythian and Thracian diasporas: Inscriptional evidence

Scythians and Getians: Dio of Prusa on inter-ethnic encounters at Olbia and on Getian Matters (late first century CE)

Scythians and other northern peoples: Ephoros (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians and other Pontic peoples: Herodotos on the “most ignorant peoples of all” (fifth century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Hyperboreans: Diodoros on some northerners (mid-first century BCE)

Scythians, Amazons, and Persians: Isocrates on the superiority of the Athenian people (early fourth century BCE)

Scythians, Germans, and others: Pliny the Elder on peoples on the western and northern coasts of the Black Sea (first century CE)

Scythians: Aischines’ ethnic invective against Demosthenes (mid-fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Klearchos of Soloi (fourth century BCE)

Scythians: Lucian on Anacharsis and Solon’s dialogue about the superiority of Greek customs (mid-second century CE)

Scythians: Lucian on Toxaris’ and Anacharsis’ differing encounters with Greeks (late second century CE)

Scythians: Trogus on Scythian superiority (first century BCE)

Serians (Chinese), Ottorokorians and others: Pliny the Elder on the savage silk people (first century CE)

Sicilians and other Greeks: Cicero’s praise for Sicilians in the prosecution of Verres (mid-first century BCE)

Sikanians, Sicilians, Sardinians and Iolaeians: Diodoros on ancient migrations and local customs on Sicily (mid-first century BCE)

Syrian and Phoenician diasporas: Inscriptional and archeological evidence

Taurians and Kolchians: Diodoros on the origins of human sacrifice in the Black Sea area (mid-first century BCE)

Thracians and Odrysians: Thucydides on Thracians, power, and violence (late fifth century BCE)

Thracians and other Black Sea peoples: Ammianus Marcellinus on their “savage” character and on Roman control (late fourth century CE)

Thracians, Getians, Paionians, and others: Herodotos (mid-fifth century BCE)

Thracians: Tacitus on their uncivilized and wild nature (early second century CE)

Troglodytes: Graffiti and inscriptions from the Red Sea area thanking Pan / Min for rescue from Cave-dwellers (second century BCE)

Trojans, Lelegians, and Kilikians: Homer and Strabo on legendary peoples and migrations in the Troad (early first century CE)

Trojans, Teukrians, and Dardanians: Diodoros on their origins (mid-first century BCE)

Tyrrhenians: Diodoros on Etruscan inventions, lifestyle, and decline (mid-first century BCE)

Various peoples: Polybios on the mixed composition of Ptolemy IV’s and Antiochos III’s armies (second century BCE)

Western peoples beyond the pillars of Herakles (and up): Lucian’s “A True Story” and ethnographic fiction (late second century CE)