{"id":18770,"date":"2024-03-06T13:48:03","date_gmt":"2024-03-06T18:48:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/?p=18770"},"modified":"2024-03-25T09:04:16","modified_gmt":"2024-03-25T13:04:16","slug":"persians-aeschylus-on-barbarian-persian-hierarchy-luxury-and-emotionalism-472-bce","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/2024\/03\/persians-aeschylus-on-barbarian-persian-hierarchy-luxury-and-emotionalism-472-bce\/","title":{"rendered":"Persians: Aeschylus on “barbarian” hierarchy, luxury, and emotionalism (472 BCE)"},"content":{"rendered":"

Ancient author:<\/em> <\/strong>Aeschylus (early fifth century BCE), Persians <\/em>in full (link<\/a>; link<\/a> to Greek).<\/p>\n

Comments: <\/em><\/strong>Edith Hall’s ground-breaking work (of 1989) on Greek tragedy argues that the Greek concept of the “barbarian” other first emerged in reaction to the external Persian threat and that the earliest manifestation of the Greek-barbarian dichotomy is to be found in Aeschylus tragic play Persians<\/em>, first performed in 472 BCE (just eight years after crucial Greek victories over king Xerxes and the Persians). All of the characters in this play are Persians (played by Athenian actors, of course).<\/p>\n

Subsequent decades have witnessed some hesitancy by scholars about the centrality of the dichotomy in Greek conceptions about other peoples. I would also point to the fact that sociological and social psychological studies show just how prevalent an us-them dichotomy can be in ethnic relations more broadly, which suggests it would be hard to find the point of “invention” of another instance of that ethnic boundary making process. Furthermore, other scholars have argued that this specific Greek concept of alterity may have emerged earlier in the Ionian context in the sixth century (e.g. Kim 2013).<\/p>\n

Nonetheless, the point remains that this play about Persians <\/em>is our earliest glimpse into the Athenian image of the “barbarian” on the model of the Persian. This is not a completely monolithic characterization, as a previous king like Darius can be portrayed as wise in comparison with Xerxes, whose more recent invasion of Greece makes him a crucial target for negativity. Generally speaking, however, the picture of Persian barbarians that emerges here is, as Hall clarifies, marked by three main qualities that are contrasted to Athenian elite ideals of (1) rule by the people (by which is meant free males), (2) moderation, and (3) self-control. The Persian way of life, in contrast, is marked by: (1) hierarchical arrangements amounting to tyranny and slavery, (2) excessive wealth and luxury, and (3) uncontrolled emotions (e.g. cruelty and fear). Aeschylus’ play below provides our first glimpse into this emerging Athenian picture of the Persians which in various ways would echo in subsequent Greek perceptions of easterners overall.<\/p>\n

The play is also notable for its depiction of an ostensibly Persian ritual aimed at consulting the dead (i.e. “necromancy”), with Atossa gathering various materials together in order to call up the shade of Darius (lines 607-699). It should be mentioned that this play also contains what may be the earliest Greek reference to a “Magian” (magos<\/em>) with the mention of Arabos the Magian (line 316).<\/p>\n

Works consulted: E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self-Definition through Tragedy <\/i>(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), especially pp. 56-100; H.J. Kim, \u201cThe Invention of the \u2018Barbarian\u2019 in Late Sixth-Century BC Ionia,\u201d in Ancient Ethnography: New Approaches<\/i>, ed. Eran Almagor and Joseph Skinner (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 25\u201348.<\/p>\n

\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017<\/p>\n

Characters<\/em><\/p>\n

ATOSSA: queen of Persia, mother of Xerxes, wife of Darius.
\nMESSENGER: a soldier with Xerxes\u2019s army.
\nDARIUS: a ghost, father of Xerxes, once king of Persia.
\nXERXES: king of Persia, son of Darius and Atossa.
\nCHORUS: elder elites of Persia.<\/p>\n

[The action takes place in Susa, the capital of the Persian empire, in front of a large building.]<\/p>\n

[The Chorus enters.]<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: We are here as trustworthy delegates
\nfor all those Persians who have marched away
\nto the land of Greece. Thanks to our old age,
\nwe are the guardians of the royal home,
\nso rich in gold, the men Xerxes himself,
\nour king, son of Darius, has chosen
\nto supervise his realm. But here inside,
\nmy heart has for a long time been troubled
\nabout our golden army\u2019s journey home
\nand the king\u2019s return. It senses trouble. [10]
\nFor all the power born out of Asia
\nhas gone, responding to our young king\u2019s call,
\nand yet here in the Persians\u2019 capital
\nno horseman has come back, no courier.
\nStreaming out of Susa and Agbatana
\nand the ancient parapets of Kissa,
\nour forces moved away, some on horseback,
\nsome by ship, some on foot\u2014a close-packed mass [20]
\nprepared for war\u2014men like Artaphrenes,
\nAmistres, Astaspes, and Megabates,
\ncommanders of Persia\u2019s warrior host,
\nall kings and yet all ruled by our Great King,
\nleaders of a vast army on the march,
\nexperts in archery and horsemanship,
\nfearful to look at and terrible in war,
\ntheir spirits steeled for battle. With them there
\nis Artembares the charioteer, [30]
\nas well as Masistes, noble Imaeus
\nso deadly with his bow, Pharandaces,
\nand Sosthanes, who drives his horses on.
\nThe fertile mighty Nile sent others, too\u2014
\nSousiscanes, Egyptian-born Pegastagon,
\nArsames, great king of sacred Memphis,
\nAriomardos, who rules in ancient Thebes,
\nand from the marshes men who row the ships,
\na frightening horde in countless numbers.
\nAnd with them goes a crowd of Lydians, [40]
\nluxury loving men, whose force controls
\nall mainland tribes, warrior ranks sent out
\nwith noble Arcteus and Mitrogathes,
\na royal command, and gold-rich Sardis\u2014
\nhuge throngs of chariots streaming out,
\nrow after row of three- and four-horse teams,
\na terrifying sight! And men who live
\nby sacred Tmolus now threaten to hurl [50]
\nthe yoke of slavery upon the Greeks\u2014
\nMardon and Tharybis, with thunderbolts
\nfor spears, and Mysians armed with javelins.
\nAnd Babylon, awash with gold, sends out
\nhuge columns of men of different kinds,
\nsailors on ships and other troops whose strength
\nrelies on skill in fighting with the bow.
\nThe sabre-bearing races also come
\nfrom all of Asia, following the king,
\na fearful expedition on the march!
\nWarriors like these move out, the flower [60]
\nof Persian lands, while all of Asia yearns.
\nTheir nurturing mother now longs for them
\nand groans with fierce desire, as wives and children
\ncount the days and shudder at the long delay.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Obliterating cities as it moves,
\nour royal army has already marched
\nto neighbouring lands on the facing shore,
\ncrossing the Hellespont, that narrow sea
\nwhich gets its name from Athamas\u2019s child,
\non a floating bridge tied down with cable [70]
\nand throwing the yoke of a tight-knit road
\nacross the neck of the sea.
\nThrough every land
\nthe fiery king of a massive Asian horde
\ndrives on his men\u2014a wondrous warrior pack\u2014
\nin a double formation by land and sea,
\nwith trust in his brave and stern commanders,
\nour golden born and godlike king. [80]
\nHis dark eyes burn
\nwith the glare of a snake aroused to kill.
\nSoldiers and sailors massing behind him,
\nhe urges his Syrian chariot on,
\nleading his archers like a war god\u2019s host
\nto fight against men renowned for their spears.
\nNo man has the strength to repel this force,
\nthis irresistible torrent of men,
\nor with a strong bulwark to hold in check
\nthe overpowering surge of the sea. [90]
\nFor warriors fill our Persian ranks,
\nour invincible force of fearless men.
\nBy decrees of the gods since earliest times,
\nFate has ruled all and has always ordained
\nthat Persians wage war, knocking down towers,
\nfighting in chariots, and demolishing cities.
\nBy trusting their finely made cables and ships
\nour men have now learned how to gaze on the deep [100]
\nwhen tempestuous storms from the howling winds
\nwhip white surface waters across the broad sea.
\nBut what mortal man can hope to evade
\ninsidious deceit of the gods? What man
\nwith nimble feet can leap above that snare?
\nFor fair Delusion, with her welcoming smile,
\nspreads her nets wide and lures the man in.
\nThere is no escape\u2014that trap she sets
\nno man evades by springing back once more.
\nSuch matters hang black thoughts around my heart
\nand tear at it with fear. Alas for them,
\nthe soldiers of that mighty Persian force!
\nMay our great city Sousa never hear
\na cry like that or learn its men have died.
\nAnd Kissa\u2019s city folk will then all chant [120]
\ntheir own song in reply\u2014Alas! That crowd
\nof women screaming out will tear apart
\ntheir splendid robes of linen.
\nFor all our men\u2014
\nour horse and infantry\u2014like swarms of bees,
\nhave left with the lord who leads our army,
\ncrossing the cape the two continents share, [130]
\nnow Xerxes has yoked them both together.
\nOur marriage beds long for the absent men
\nand fill with tears, as Persian women grieve,
\neach one with a woman\u2019s heartfelt yearning
\nfor the fearless warrior she sent away.
\nHer man is gone, and now she sleeps alone.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Come now, Persians, let us take our seats [140]
\nwithin this ancient place. Let us reflect,
\nfor at this time we need to turn our thoughts
\nto wise and well-considered counsel
\nabout what is happening with our king,
\nXerxes, son of Darius. Have Persian archers
\ndrawn their bows and won, or have the Greeks
\nwith the power of their sharp spears prevailed?<\/p>\n

[Atossa enters with attendants]<\/p>\n

But look\u2014the mother of our king approaches,
\nlike light streaming from the eye of god.
\nI must prostrate myself before my queen,
\nand all of you must show her your respect\u2014
\nsalute her majesty with words of welcome.<\/p>\n

[The Chorus Leader prostrates himself and speaks to Atossa from his knees.]<\/p>\n

Hail to you, O queen, most illustrious
\nof all deep-waisted Persian women\u2014
\nXerxes\u2019s aged mother and wife of Darius,
\nonce the consort of Persia\u2019s god and now
\nthe mother of their god\u2014unless perhaps
\nthe divinity they used to have of old
\nhas now abandoned Persian warriors.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: That is why I have left my gold-decked home
\nand the royal bed I shared with Darius [160]
\nand have come here. For worries rend my heart.
\nMy friends, I will confide in you\u2014I am afraid
\nthat our vast wealth will quickly stir up dust
\nand with its foot cast down the great success
\nwhich\u2014thanks to the assistance of some god\u2014
\nking Darius achieved. And that is why
\nmy mind is burdened with a double care,
\nwhich I find difficult to speak about.
\nThe common folk do not respect great wealth
\nunless backed up with men, and though the poor
\nmay have great strength, the light of their success
\nwill never shine. Now, we have wealth enough,
\nbut still I fear for what I hold to be
\nour finest treasure, true riches in the home,
\nthe lord and master\u2019s eye. Since that is so, [170]
\nPersians, you old trustworthy counsellors,
\nadvise me what to do, since all my hopes
\nfor level-headed guidance rest on you.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: You are our country\u2019s queen\u2014so rest assured
\nyou do not need to ask us twice for help,
\nfor anything that lies with our power
\nto say or do. You have summoned us here
\nas counsellors in this affair, and we
\nare well disposed to serve your interests.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Many dreams keep visiting me at night\u2014
\nall the time\u2014ever since my son prepared
\nhis army and set off, hoping to destroy
\nIonian lands. But this past night
\nI had one more distinct than all the rest.
\nI will describe it to you. I seemed to see [180]
\ntwo women dressed in very lovely clothes\u2014
\none wore Persian robes, the other Dorian.
\nThey came in view\u2014both of gigantic size,
\nmuch larger than the women of today,
\nand very beautiful. They were sisters,
\nof the same family line. One of them
\nlived in Hellenic lands, assigned by lot,
\nthe other dwelt among barbarians.
\nAnd as I watched, I seemed to see these two
\nbegin to fight each other. Then my son,
\nonce he learned of this, tried to hold them back
\nand calm them down. Around their necks he set [190]
\na collar strap and yoked it to his chariot.
\nOne sister carried her restraint with pride
\nand kept her mouth compliant in the reins.
\nThe other one fought back\u2014her hands tore at
\nthe chariot harness and, freed from her restraint,
\ndragged it so hard she broke the yoke in two.
\nMy son fell out headfirst, and Darius,
\nhis father, who stood close by, was grieving.
\nThen Xerxes, when he saw his father there,
\nshred the garments covering his body.
\nThat was the dream I saw during the night. [200]
\nWhen I got up, I went to wash my hands
\nin a flowing spring, and holding up a gift,
\nI stood beside an altar, intending
\nto offer sacrifice to those deities
\nwho ward off evil, with those rituals
\nwhich are their due. But then I saw an eagle
\nswooping down for safety at the altar
\nof Apollo, and I was terrified.
\nMy friends, as I stood there speechless, I saw
\na hawk racing up behind, wings outspread.
\nIts talons clawed and ripped the eagle\u2019s head.
\nThe eagle did not fight but cowered down
\nand left its body open to attack.
\nSeeing this visions made me so afraid\u2014 [210]
\nand hearing them you must be fearful, too.
\nFor you know well that if my son succeeds
\nhe will become a man men hold in awe,
\nbut even if he fails, those in the city
\ncannot hold him accountable, for Xerxes,
\nif he gets safely back, still rules this land.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Lady mother, we do not wish our words
\nto make you fearful or offer you false hope.
\nBut if what you have seen is ominous,
\napproach the gods with prayers, begging them
\nto avert the evil and bring about
\nwhat is of benefit to you, your sons,
\nthe city, all your family and friends.
\nThen you must pour libations to the earth
\nand to the dead, and with auspicious words [220]
\nask Darius, your husband, whom you say
\nyou saw last night, to confer his blessing
\nfrom underneath the earth up to the light,
\non you and on your son, and to hold down
\nwhat works against you and keep it buried
\ndeep within the earth, hidden in the dark.
\nFrom what I understand of prophecy
\nand as a friend I give you this advice.
\nI sense that in these matters everything
\nwill turn out favourably for you.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: You are the first one who has offered me
\nan interpretation of the dreams I had,
\nand you have clearly shown in what you say
\nyour kindness to my child and family.
\nMay things all turn out well! When I return
\nback to the palace, I will carry out
\nthose rituals for the gods and loved ones
\nunderneath the earth, the way you have advised.
\nBut, friends, there is one thing I wish to know. [230]
\nIn what part of the world do people say
\nthis city of Athens is located?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Far away from here, where our Lord the Sun
\ngrows dim and sets.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: And is it really true
\nmy son desired to conquer such a place?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Yes, he did. For then all lands in Hellas
\nwould be subject to our King.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: And these Greeks\u2014
\ndoes their army consist of many men?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Their army has been strong enough before
\nto have done much damage to the Medes.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Are their hands trained to fight with well-strung bows?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: No, not at all\u2014they arm themselves with shields
\nand fight in close with spears.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: What other things
\ndo they possess? Do they have wealth at home\u2014
\nall the money they need?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: They have a mine,
\na fountain of silver\u2014their country\u2019s treasure. [240]<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Who governs them? Who commands their army?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: People say they are no man\u2019s slaves or servants.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Then how can they turn back a fierce attack
\nwhen warlike men invade?<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Well, they managed
\nto destroy that great and glorious force
\nwhich Darius had sent against them.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: For those whose sons have left, those words of yours
\nare ominous to think of.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: It seems to me
\nyou will soon know the truth of what\u2019s gone on.
\nWhy else would a Persian man be rushing here.
\nHe must be bringing news of some event\u2014
\nit\u2019s clearly something good or bad.<\/p>\n

[Enter the Messenger, in great haste. He falls prostrate before Atossa and delivers his first speeches from his knees]<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: O you cities throughout all Asian lands,
\nO realm of Persia, haven of vast wealth, [250]
\none blow has smashed your great prosperity\u2014
\nthe flower of Persia has been destroyed!
\nOur men have perished! Alas! It\u2019s terrible
\nto be first to tell disastrous news,
\nand yet, you Persians, I must now provide
\na full report of that catastrophe\u2014
\nour whole barbarian army has been killed!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Such dreadful, dreadful news!
\nSo cruel and unforeseen.
\nAlas! Alas! Weep now,
\nyou Persians, as you learn
\nof this calamity!<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: Yes, weep, for all those men have been wiped out, [260]
\nwhile I look on this unexpected day
\nwhen I have come back home.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: For older men, this life of ours
\nhas been too long, it seems\u2014
\nwe have to learn about
\nthis unanticipated grief.<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: I was there\u2014I did not hear what happened
\nfrom other men\u2014so, Persians, I can speak
\ndirectly of the evil things we faced.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Aaaiii! Our great host
\nwith all its different weapons
\nset out from Asian lands in vain [270]
\nto the mighty land of Hellas!<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: The corpses fill the shores of Salamis
\nand all the coasts nearby\u2014our wretched dead.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! Such grief! You say
\nthe bodies of the ones we love
\nare tossing in the surf,
\nbeing driven back and forth
\nand carried by the shifting waves.<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: Our bows were no defence. Our men perished.
\nThe entire force was overwhelmed at sea
\nwhen Ionian ships attacked our fleet.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Cry a sorrowful lament, [280]
\na pitiful dirge for our dead,
\nthose ill-starred Persian men!
\nThe gods bring all this evil!
\nAaaaiii! Aaaiii!
\nThe army is now gone!<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: That name Salamis\u2014a hateful word,
\nthe most offensive to my ears. Alas,
\nhow I groan when I remember Athens!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Yes, Athens is hateful to her foes!
\nWe well recall how Athens made
\nso many Persian women widows
\nby slaughtering their men.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: I have kept quiet for a long time here, [290]
\nstruck silent by the news of this defeat.
\nFor this event is too calamitous
\nto talk or even ask about the pain.
\nYet suffering is something mortal beings
\nmust learn to bear when it comes from the gods.
\nSo stand up now and speak. Give your report\u2014
\nand even if you groan at this bad news,
\ndescribe the full extent of our defeat.
\nWho did not die? What about the leaders?
\nWhich ones should we mourn? And of all those men
\nappointed to a sceptre-bearing post,
\nwhich ones have died and left a vacancy
\namong the ranks of our commanders?<\/p>\n

[The Messenger stands up.]<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: Xerxes himself survived\u2014he is alive
\nand sees the light of day.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: What you have said
\nbrings a great light of hope into my home, [300]
\na bright dawn after grim black drapes of night.<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: But Artembares, who led ten thousand horse,
\nis being smashed against the cruel shores
\nof Salamis, and Dadaces, who led
\na thousand men, was hit by a spear
\nand with an easy leap fell from his ship.
\nTenagon, the finest of that ancient race
\nfrom Bactria, now moves around the isle
\nof Ajax, a coastline pounded by the sea.
\nLilaios, Arsames, and a third one,
\nArgestes, are washed around that island,
\na breeding place for doves, as they are thrown
\nagainst its rugged shore. Of all those men [310]
\nliving beside the springs of Egypt\u2019s Nile,
\nPharnouchos fell, and three men from one ship,
\nPheresseues and Adeues
\nand Arcteus. And Matallos from Chryse,
\nwho ruled an army of ten thousand men,
\nas he died, stained his thick, dark, shaggy beard
\nand changed its colour with a blood-red dye.
\nArabos the Magian perished there,
\nand so did Artabes from Bactria,
\nwho led black horsemen thirty thousand strong
\nand now has settled deep in rocky ground,
\nas well as Amistris and Amphistreus, [320]
\nwho held a deadly spear, and Ariomardus,
\na noble man whose death makes Sardis grieve,
\nand Seisames from Mysia. Tharybis,
\ncommander of two hundred fifty ships,
\na handsome man, by birth a Lyrnaean,
\nnow lies in miserable death\u2014his luck
\nabandoned him. And Suennesis, too,
\nwho ruled Cilicians and by himself
\nbrought so much suffering to his enemies,
\nfor of courageous men he was the best,
\nfought valiantly and died. I have listed
\nthese men by name, but we lost so many!
\nWhat I have told you mentions just a few. [330]<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Alas! Alas! I have listened to your words,
\nthe height of our misfortune\u2014a disgrace
\nto Persia, cause enough for screams of grief.
\nBut return to your report and tell me this\u2014
\nWhat was the number of the Grecian fleet?
\nWhat made them confident enough
\nto risk a fight at sea with Persian ships?<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: You can be sure that we barbarians
\nwould have overwhelmed their fleet, if numbers
\nhad been the only thing. For the Greeks had,
\nin total, three hundred ships. Ten of these [340]
\nwere chosen as a special group. But Xerxes\u2014
\nI can confirm this\u2014led a thousand ships,
\ntwo hundred and seven of which could sail
\nextremely fast. That\u2019s how the numbers stood.
\nSurely you cannot think that when we fought
\nwe were outnumbered? No. Some deity
\ndid not weigh the scales of fortune fairly
\nand destroyed our fleet. The gods protect
\nthat city of the goddess Pallas.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: And so,
\nthe city of Athens remains unscathed.<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: Yes. While its citizens are still alive
\nit has a fortress that will never fail.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Tell me how the battle with the ships began. [350]
\nWho was the first to fight? Was it the Greeks?
\nOr was my son happy to engage their fleet,
\ngiven the huge number of his ships?<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: My queen, a demon or evil spirit
\nappeared from somewhere and set in motion
\neverything that led to our complete collapse.
\nA man from the Athenian forces,
\na Greek, came to Xerxes, your son, and said
\nthat after night arrived and it grew dark
\nthe Greeks would not remain where they were now,
\nbut leap onto the benches in their ships
\nand, by moving stealthily here and there,
\nwould try to row away and save their lives. [360]
\nXerxes did not sense the Greek man\u2019s cunning
\nor the envy of the gods. So once he heard
\nwhat the man had said, he quickly issued
\nthe following orders to his captains:
\n\u201cWhen the sun\u2019s rays no longer warm the earth
\nand darkness seizes regions of the sky,
\ndraw up the ships into a triple line
\nand block the exits to the roaring sea.
\nWith other vessels form a tight blockade
\naround that isle of Ajax. If the Greeks
\nescape their evil fate and somehow find
\na secret way to steal off in their ships, [370]
\nmy orders are that all will lose their heads.\u201d
\nWhen Xerxes said these words, his heart and mind
\nwere fully confident\u2014he had no inkling
\nof what the gods had planned. His men obeyed.
\nTheir spirits showed no lack of discipline,
\nas they prepared a meal and every sailor
\nlashed his oar in place against the thole pin.
\nOnce the sun\u2019s light had disappeared and night
\ncame creeping in, each master of his oar
\nand all the soldiers under arms went down
\ninto the ships, and as the long boats sailed
\nto take up their assigned positions, row by row,
\nthe men called out to cheer each other on. [380]
\nSo all night long the officers and crews
\nkept sailing back and forth on their patrol,
\nyet as night passed, the Greek force did not try
\nto slip away in secret. But when the day
\nrode up with her white steeds and radiant light
\nseized all the earth, at first we heard a shout.
\nA resounding cry came from the Greeks\u2014
\nit sounded like a song\u2014and right away
\nthe echo brought a clarion response
\nreverberating from the island rocks. [390]
\nThen panic struck the whole barbarian fleet.
\nOur plan had failed, for at that point the Greeks
\ndid not call out their solemn holy cry
\nas if they meant to flee. No. They sounded
\nlike men who meant to fight with courage
\nin their hearts. And when a trumpet pealed,
\nthey all caught fire. Then, once the order came,
\nwith one united sweep their foaming oars
\nstruck the salty sea, and their fleet of ships
\nquickly came in sight, all clearly visible.
\nFirst of all, their well organized right wing
\nadvanced in order. Then the entire force [400]
\nmoved up, and, as it did, we all could hear
\na mighty cry:
\n\u201cYou offspring of the Greeks,
\ncome on! Free your native home! Free your wives,
\nyour children, the temples of your father\u2019s gods,
\nthe burial places of your ancestors!
\nThe time has come to fight for all of these!\u201d
\nWe responded with a confusing shout
\nfrom Persian tongues, but by now the crisis
\nleft no time to delay. For right away,
\nthe ships began to use their bronze-clad prows
\nto ram each other. In the first attack
\na Greek ship completely smashed the bow [410]
\non a Phoenician boat, and after that
\nboth rival navies went at one another.
\nAt first, the bulk of the Persian forces
\nheld them back. But with so many vessels
\nconfined inside a narrow space, our ships
\ncould provide no help to other Persians.
\nInstead their bronze prows rammed their own fleet\u2019s ships
\nand smashed the banks of oars. Meanwhile the Greeks
\ndid not fail to seize this opportunity\u2014
\nthey formed a circle round us and attacked.
\nOur ships\u2019 hulls capsized, and the waves grew full
\nof shattered boats and slaughtered sailors, [420]
\nso much so we could not glimpse the sea.
\nBeaches and rocks were crowded with the dead.
\nAs all the ships left in our barbarian fleet
\nrushed off to escape in great confusion,
\nthe Greeks kept butchering men in the sea,
\nhacking away at them with broken oars
\nand bits of wreckage, as if our sailors
\nwere schools of mackerel or loads of fish.
\nGroans and screams of pain filled the open sea,
\nuntil night\u2019s shadowy eye concealed the scene.
\nBut I could not describe the full extent [430]
\nof the disaster to you, not even
\nif I spoke of it for ten entire days.
\nFor you must understand that never before
\nhas such an enormous multitude of men
\nall perished in a single day.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Alas!
\nAn immense sea of evil has engulfed
\nthe Persians and our whole barbarian race!<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: But listen\u2014there is more. I have not mentioned
\nhalf our troubles yet. For our men suffered
\nevils twice as heavy as the ones before.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: What troubles worse than what you have described
\ncould have hurt our army? Speak! You talked of
\nsome catastrophe. What could have happened
\nto sink our scale of evil even further? [440]<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: All those Persians in their prime of life,
\nthe very finest spirits, whose noble birth
\nmade them exceptional, the foremost men,
\nwho always had the trust of our Great King,
\nhave met a most dishonourable fate
\nand died in shame.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: O my friends, this disaster
\ncompounds my misery! What kind of fate
\ndo you say killed these splendid men?<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: There is an island in front of Salamis\u2014
\na tiny place, but hazardous for ships.
\nDance-loving Pan lives there, close to the shore.
\nXerxes had placed his finest warriors here, [450]
\nso that, when our defeated enemies
\nmoved from the ships and sought a refuge
\non that island, his men could overwhelm
\nthe Grecian force where it was vulnerable,
\nand they could save the lives of any friends
\ntrapped in the sea within that narrow strait.
\nBut Xerxes\u2019s judgment of events was wrong.
\nFor when some god gave glory to the Greeks
\nin the battle out at sea, that very day
\nthey walled themselves in armour made of bronze,
\nleapt out of their ships, and formed a circle
\naround the island, so that our soldiers
\nhad nowhere to escape. Many of our men
\nwere hit with stones thrown by enemy hands [460]
\nor died from falling arrows shot from bows.
\nAt last in one concerted charge, the Greeks
\nattacked, hacking away at Persian limbs
\nuntil the lives of all those pitiful men
\nhad been utterly destroyed. From high up
\non a promontory right beside the sea
\nXerxes watched. He had an excellent view
\nof his entire army, and, as he looked
\nand witnessed the extent of this defeat,
\nhe groaned, tore his robes, gave out a shrill cry,
\nand quickly issued orders to his troops,
\nwho ran away confused. This defeat [470]
\nand the other one I talked of earlier\u2014
\nthese are the disasters you must grieve.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: O hateful demon, how you have deceived
\nthe Persians! That famous city Athens
\nhas taken harsh revenge against my son\u2014
\nnot satisfied with those barbarians
\nshe killed at Marathon in years gone by.
\nBy seeking retribution for those men,
\nmy son has brought himself a multitude
\nof grief. What about the ships that got away?
\nTell me where you left them. And do you have
\na clear idea of where they might be now?<\/p>\n

MESSENGER: Those in charge of our surviving ships [480]
\nquickly fled away in great disorder,
\non whatever course the winds might take them.
\nThe remnants of our army was destroyed
\nin lands of the Boeotians\u2014some of them
\nnear a refreshing spring where they had gone,
\ndriven there by thirst. Others among us,
\nexhausted and short of breath, kept marching
\ninto Phocean land\u2014reaching Doris
\nand the Gulf of Malia, where Spercheios
\npours his fresh waters on the plain. And then,
\ndesperate for food, we kept moving on
\nto the Achaean plain, where we were welcomed
\nby Thessalians in their cities. But here,
\nmost of our men died of thirst or hunger, [490]
\nfor we were suffering from both. From there,
\nwe reached the place where the Magnesians live
\nand Macedonian land\u2014the river Axios,
\nBolbe\u2019s reed-filled marsh, and Mount Pangaeon,
\non Edonian ground. But during the night
\nsome spirit stirred up winter before its time.
\nThe stream of the sacred river Strymon
\nwas completely frozen, and all those men
\nwho had given the gods no thought till then
\nat that point offered up their solemn prayers
\nwith supplications to both Earth and Heaven.
\nOnce the army had finished calling out [500]
\nits many invocations to the gods,
\nwe moved on across the frozen river.
\nSome of us, those who left before the god
\ncould scatter his rays, crossed the ice in safety,
\nbut once the brilliant circle of the sun
\nwith his hot beams had warmed the middle part
\nand melted it with fire, then men fell through,
\nstumbling against each other. And the man
\nwho lost the breath of life most rapidly
\nwas truly lucky. The ones who got across
\nsaved themselves by moving on through Thrace,
\nthough not without much pain and suffering.
\nNot many of those fugitives escaped [510]
\nand reached their native land. Now is the time
\nour Persian city should lament its loss,
\ngrieving for the most cherished youthful men
\nin all our land. What I have said is true.
\nBut I have left out many dreadful things
\nwhich a god has hurled down on the Persians.<\/p>\n

[Exit Messenger.]<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: O savage demon! With what heavy weight
\nyour feet have stamped on all the Persian race!<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: This overpowers me\u2014the utter ruin
\nof our entire force! Those visions last night\u2014
\nthe ones I saw so clearly in my dreams\u2014
\nhow plainly they revealed these blows to me.
\nYour sense of them was far too trivial. [520]
\nBut nonetheless, following your advice,
\nI will begin by praying to the gods,
\nand then I will return, bringing offerings
\nfor the Earth and for the dead\u2014a libation
\nfrom my home. I know I will be worshipping
\nafter all that has already happened,
\nbut I am hoping better things will come
\nto us in future. Given these events,
\nyou men should demonstrate your loyalty
\nby offering me trustworthy counsel.
\nAnd if, while I am gone, my son arrives,
\ncomfort him, accompany him back home, [530]
\nso no misfortune comes to trouble him,
\napart from those we have already faced.<\/p>\n

[Exit Atossa.]<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: O Zeus, king, now you have destroyed
\nthe overconfident armed multitude
\nof the Persian army, shrouding
\nthe cities of Susa and Agbatana
\nin gloom and overwhelming sorrow.
\nAnd many women share our grief,
\nripping their veils with gentle hands, [540]
\nsoaking their bosoms drenched in tears.
\nWith agonizing female cries
\nthe wives of Persia yearn to see
\nthose men they married only recently.
\nThey leave their wedding beds,
\nthe softly quilted joys of youth,
\nand howl with grief that has no end.
\nAnd I, in great distress, take on myself
\nthe dreadful fate of those who are now gone.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Now indeed all lands in Asia
\nmourn their absent men!
\nXerxes marched them off to war, alas! [550]
\nXerxes, to our sorrow, killed our men!
\nXerxes, in his folly, took them all
\nand set out with a seagoing fleet.
\nWhy then did Darius, while he lived
\nand ruled our city\u2019s archer armies,
\nremain unhurt and so well loved
\nby those who dwell in Susa?
\nOur troops on foot and sailors left
\nin the dark-eyed ships\u2014alas!\u2014 [560]
\nand went away on linen wings.
\nThen other ships destroyed them,
\nobliterating all with their assault
\nat the hands of sailors from Ionia.
\nAnd as we hear, our king himself
\nescaped, but only just, through Thrace,
\non frozen paths across the plains.
\nLament for those who perished earlier,
\nabandoned by necessity\u2014alas!\u2014
\nalong Cychrean shores. Such grief! [570]
\nScream out your sorrow, clench your teeth,
\nlet cries of anguished mourning
\nclimb the heights of heaven\u2014alas!\u2014
\ndraw out your long and piteous moans.
\nThey are torn by the deadly surf\u2014alas!\u2014
\nand gnawed by those voiceless children
\nof the unpolluted seas\u2014alas!
\nThe grieving household mourns
\nits absent lord, and parents [580]
\nwhose children now are dead
\ncry out against the heaven-sent pain,
\nwhile the old, in sorrow, hear
\nof those men\u2019s agonies in full.
\nNow other men in Asian lands
\nno longer will abide by Persian laws,
\nno longer pay the Persians tribute,
\nunder compulsion from our king.
\nNo longer will they fall down prostrate
\non the ground and worship him.
\nFor the power of our king is gone! [590]
\nNo more will people check their tongues,
\nfor now they have the liberty
\nto speak their minds without restraint.
\nThe yoke of force has been removed,
\nand on that isle where Ajax ruled,
\nthe blood-soaked rocks, washed by the sea,
\nnow hold the power of Persia.<\/p>\n

[Enter Atossa, this time without an escort.]<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: My friends, whoever has experienced disaster
\nunderstands that when a wave of trouble
\nbreaks over mortal men, they are inclined [600]
\nto be afraid of everything, and then,
\nwhen good fortune blows their way once more,
\nthey start believing that this same good luck
\nwill keep on blowing them success forever.
\nIn my case, all things now look full of dread.
\nMy eyes can see the gods are enemies,
\nand in my ears echoes a sound that brings
\nno note of joy. I am so overwhelmed
\nby these disasters\u2014they have made my mind
\nso anxious and afraid. And that is why
\nI come here from the palace once again
\nwithout my chariots, without that pomp
\nI used to have before, bringing offerings
\nfor the father of my son, libations
\nto propitiate and appease the dead\u2014 [610]
\nsweet white milk from an unblemished cow
\nand splendid honey, distilled from flowers
\nby the bees, with water from a virgin spring,
\nand from their rustic mother earth I bring
\nthis unmixed drink, the delightful produce
\nof the ancient vine, and this sweet-smelling fruit
\nfrom the plant whose leaves are always green,
\nthe golden olive, with wreaths of flowers.
\nBut you, my friends, should chant a choral song [620]
\nto summon up the spirit of Darius,
\nwhile I pour these libations to the dead
\nand make an offering for the earth to drink,
\nin honour of the gods who rule below.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: O royal lady, whom Persians all revere,
\npour out your offerings to the earth beneath,
\ndown to the chambers of the dead, while we
\nin song will beg those gods who guide
\nthe dead down there to treat us kindly.
\nO you sacred gods of the world beneath,
\nEarth and Hermes, and you, O ruling king
\nof those who perish, send that man\u2019s spirit [630]
\nfrom down below up here into the light.
\nFor if he knows of any further help
\nin our misfortunes, of all mortal men
\nhe is the only one who can advise us
\nhow to bring that remedy to bear.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Our sacred, godlike king,
\ndoes he attend to me,
\nas my obscure barbarian voice
\nsends out these riddling, wretched cries.
\nI will bewail my dreadful sorrow.
\nDoes he hear me down below?
\nBut you, O Earth, and you others, [640]
\nyou powers beneath the earth,
\nrelease his splendid spirit
\nfrom your homes\u2014the divine one
\nborn in Susa, the Persians\u2019 god.
\nSend him up here, that man whose like
\nwas never laid to rest in Persian ground.
\nThe man is loved, as is his tomb\u2014
\nwe love the virtue buried there.
\nO Aidoneus, Aidoneus,
\nwho sends shades from the dead, [650]
\nsend Darius up here to us,
\nsend back our godlike king.
\nThat ruler never lost our men
\nto ruinous death in war,
\nand Persians hailed him as divine
\nin his wise counsel, for, like a god,
\nwhen he led his army out to fight,
\nhe planned things brilliantly. Alas!
\nO king, our old Great King,
\napproach us now, draw near.
\nRise to the summit of your tomb,
\nlift up the saffron slipper on your foot, [660]
\nreveal the royal ornaments
\nof your imperial crown,
\nand come to us, O father Darius,
\nwho never caused us pain.
\nCome listen to our latest grief,
\nthe sorrow felt throughout this land.
\nO king of Persia\u2019s king, appear.
\nFor over us the darkness spreads,
\na Stygian gloom, since our young men
\nhave just been utterly destroyed. [670]
\nSo come to us, O father Darius,
\nwho never caused us pain.
\nAaaaiii! Aaaiii!
\nO you whose death was mourned
\nso bitterly among your friends,
\nO great and powerful king,
\n[if you had been in full command
\nwho in this land would now be grieving
\nsuch twin calamitous defeats?]
\nOur three-tiered ships\u2014now ships no more\u2014
\nhave been completely overwhelmed. [680]
\nOur ships are ships no more!<\/p>\n

[The Ghost of Darius appears.]<\/p>\n

DARIUS: You loyal men in whom I placed my trust,
\nyou ancient Persians, once my youthful friends,
\nwhat troubles are now threatening the state?
\nThe soil is beaten down and torn apart\u2014
\nit groans in great distress. I see my wife
\nbeside my tomb, and so I grow concerned.
\nI have received the offerings she made
\nwith favour, while you men have been standing here,
\nclose to my grave, chanting your laments,
\nas with loud cries to summon up the dead
\nyou have been calling piteously for me.
\nBut there is no easy path from down below.
\nBeneath the earth the gods are much more prone
\nto welcome bodies than to send them back. [690]
\nStill, I do have some authority down there,
\nand I have come. But you must not waste time,
\nso I do not get blamed for my delay.
\nWhat new disaster weighs the Persians down?<\/p>\n

CHORUS: That fear of you I had in earlier days
\nmakes me too awestruck now to look at you,
\nand reverence inhibits what I say.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: But since I have responded to your cries
\nand come up here from underneath the earth,
\nyou must ignore the awe that I inspire
\nand speak. Tell me everything that has gone on.
\nBut keep the details brief\u2014no lengthy story.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: I am afraid to act on your request, [700]
\ntoo full of fear to speak directly to you
\nand say things hard to tell to those one loves.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Since ancient reverence affects your minds, [Turning toward Atossa]
\nwill you, noble and venerable queen,
\nwho shared my bed, hold back your tears and groans
\nand speak quite frankly to me? We all know
\nthat mortal blows will fall on mortal men.
\nMany from the sea, many from the land
\nafflict all human beings, as their long lives
\nkeep stretching through the years.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: O you, whose happy fate made you surpass
\nall other men in your prosperity,
\nas long as you gazed at the brilliant sun, [710]
\nyou lived a fortunate life men envied,
\nand Persians looked on you as on a god.
\nAnd now I envy you, for you have died
\nbefore you saw the depths of our misfortune.
\nO Darius, you will hear everything.
\nA few words tell it all\u2014one might well say
\nthe Persian state is utterly destroyed.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: How is this so? Has our country suffered
\nfrom some foul pestilence or civil strife?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: No, not at all. But somewhere close to Athens
\nall our forces have been overpowered.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: What son of mine led our armies there? Speak.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Impetuous Xerxes\u2014he drained the men
\nfrom our whole mainland plain.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: That reckless wretch!
\nDid he launch this foolish expedition
\nby land or sea?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: By both. The double force
\nproceeded on two fronts. [720]<\/p>\n

DARIUS: How could the men,
\na group of infantry that size, succeed
\nin moving past the Hellespont?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Xerxes
\nused a clever scheme to yoke the river
\nand forge a way across.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: He managed this?
\nHe closed the mighty Bosporus?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: He did.
\nSome spirit must have helped him with his plan.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Alas! Some mighty spirit came to him
\nand stopped him thinking clearly.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Yes. And we can see the result of that,
\nthe enormous ruin his actions caused.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Why do you grieve for them? What happened?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: The destruction of our naval forces
\nled to the slaughter of our men on land.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: And so the entire army came to grief,
\nbutchered by the spear?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Yes. And that is why
\nall of Susa mourns\u2014the entire city [730]
\nlaments its missing men.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Alas for the loss!
\nThe help and defence of the army gone!<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: All those troops from Bactria are now dead\u2014
\nnot even an old man remains.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: O wretched Xerxes! So many allies!
\nHe has killed off all our youth!<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: The people say
\nhe is now by himself, with few attendants.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: How will this end? Do you have any hope
\nhe could be rescued?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: There is some good news\u2014
\nhe reached the bridge that links two continents.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: He returned to Asia safely? Is that true?<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: It is. We have had news confirming it
\nbeyond all doubt.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Alas! Those oracles
\nhave quickly been proved true, and Zeus has let
\ntheir full prophetic weight fall on my son.
\nI had hoped the gods would somehow hold off [740]
\nfulfilling them for several years. But then,
\nwhen the man himself is in a hurry,
\nthe god will take steps, too. It seems to me
\na fountain of misfortunes has been found
\nfor all the ones I love. It was my son
\nwho, knowing nothing of these matters,
\nwith his youthful rashness brought them on.
\nHe wished to check the sacred Hellespont
\nby tying it down with chains, just like a slave,
\nand that holy river, too, the Bosporus.
\nHe built a roadway never seen before,
\nenclosing it with hammered manacles,
\ncreating there a generous causeway
\nfor his enormous force. Though a mortal man,
\nhe sought to force his will on all the gods,
\na foolish scheme, even on Poseidon.
\nWhy do that? Surely a sickness of the mind [750]
\npossessed my son? I fear that our great wealth,
\namassed by my hard work, may well become
\nthe spoils of anyone who marches here.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: Xerxes spent too much time with wicked men
\nand learned to be impulsive. They told him
\nhow you had won great riches for your sons
\nby fighting with your spear, while he, in fear,
\njust used his spear at home and did not add
\nto the wealth his father left. Gibes like this,
\nwhich Xerxes often heard from evil men,
\nled him to organize this expedition
\nand launch an armed campaign against the Greeks.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: And so he has achieved his mighty deed,
\nthe greatest of them all, truly immense,
\nwhose memory will never be erased\u2014 [760]
\nhe has removed from Susa all its citizens,
\nsomething no man has ever done before,
\nnot since the time our sovereign Zeus proclaimed
\none man should have the honour of being king
\nin all sheep-breeding Asia and should hold
\nthe sceptre of imperial command.
\nMedos was the first to lead its armies,
\nand then another man, his son, who had
\na spirit guided by intelligence,
\nfinished the work his father had begun.
\nThird after him was Cyrus, a leader
\nfavoured by the gods, for his rule brought peace
\nto all his friends. He added to his realm
\nthe Lydian and Phrygian people [770]
\nand subdued all the Ionians by force.
\nThe god felt no hostility towards him,
\nbecause his mind was wise. A son of Cyrus
\nwas the fourth in charge of Persia\u2019s armies,
\nand Mardos was the fifth, a man who shamed
\nhis country and disgraced the ancient throne.
\nBut noble Artaphrenes with the help
\nof comrades who undertook this duty
\nhatched a scheme and did away with Mardos
\nin his home. [Sixth in line was Maraphis,
\nand seventh Artaphrenes]. When my turn came,
\nI won the lot I wished for. Many times
\nI led our mighty armies in campaigns, [780]
\nand yet I never brought such great disaster
\nto our Persian state. But my son Xerxes,
\nwho is still young, has immature ideas
\nand does not bear in mind what I advised.
\nFor you whose old age matches mine know well
\nthat none of us who have held ruling power
\nwas ever seen to cause such great distress.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: But then, lord Darius, these words of yours\u2014
\nwhat do they imply? What do you conclude?
\nAfter these events, what should we Persians do
\nto serve this land the best way possible?<\/p>\n

DARIUS: You must not organize armed expeditions [790]
\nagainst Hellenic lands, not even if
\nthe Persian force is larger than before.
\nThey have an ally\u2014the very land itself.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: What do you mean? In what way is the land
\ntheir ally?<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Those armies which are very large
\nshe kills with famine.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: Then we will raise
\nsome special soldiers and supply them well.<\/p>\n

DARIUS: But that army which is still in Greece
\nwill not get safely home.<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: What are you saying?
\nWill all our forces of barbarians
\nnot make their way across the Hellespont
\nand out of Europe?<\/p>\n

DARIUS: Not very many\u2014
\nonly a few of that huge multitude, [800]
\nif, after those events we have been through,
\nwe still place any trust in prophecies
\nthe gods have made. For it is not the case
\nthat some will be fulfilled and others not.
\nIf the oracles are true, then Xerxes,
\nconvinced by empty hopes, will leave behind
\na specially chosen portion of his army,
\nnow stationed where the river Asopus
\nwaters the plains and brings Boeotian lands
\nsweet nourishment. This is the place those men
\nremain to undergo their punishment,
\nthe very worst disaster of them all,
\na payment for their pride and godless thoughts.
\nFor when they first arrived in Greece, those men
\ndid not display the slightest reverence
\nbut broke in pieces images of gods [810]
\nand burned their temples. They ravaged altars
\ndemolished holy shrines, knocking them down
\nto their foundations, leaving scattered ruins.
\nAnd thus, given their acts were so profane,
\nthe evils they must suffer are no less\u2014
\nand others are in store. They have not plumbed
\nthe depths of their disasters\u2014more troubles
\nwill keep flowing yet. The mix of blood and gore
\npoured out by Dorian spears across the earth
\nof Plataea will be so great the dead,
\nthe corpses heaped in piles, will still be there
\nwhen three generations have come and gone,
\na silent witness to the eyes of men
\nthat mortal human beings should not believe [820]
\nthat they are greater than they are. For pride,
\nwhen it grows ripe, produces as its fruit
\ndisastrous folly and a harvest crop
\nof countless tears. So when you look upon
\nthe punishment for how these men behaved,
\nremember Greece and Athens. Do not let
\nany man despise the god he follows
\nand, in his lust for something else, squander
\nthe great wealth he possesses. I tell you
\nZeus does act to chastise arrogant men
\nwhose thoughts are far too proud, and when he does
\nhis hand is heavy. So now that Xerxes
\nhas shown he lacks the prudence to think well,
\nyou must teach him with sensible advice [830]
\nto stop being so offensive to the gods
\nthrough his presumptuous daring. As for you,
\ndear lady, Xerxes\u2019s venerable mother,
\nreturn back to the palace. Pick out there
\nsome clothing fit for him, and then prepare
\nto meet your son. His grief at his misfortune
\nhas torn to shreds the embroidered clothing
\ncovering his body. Use soothing words
\nand gently calm him down, for I know this\u2014
\nyours is the only voice he listens to.
\nAs for me, I am returning to the earth,
\nto darkness down below. Farewell, old men,
\ndespite these troubling times, you should each day [840]
\ndiscover reasons to rejoice, for riches
\nbring no profit whatsoever to the dead.<\/p>\n

[The Ghost of Darius disappears.]<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER: To hear about the many troubles
\nwe barbarians must face, the ones
\nalready here and still more yet to come,
\nfills me with grief.<\/p>\n

ATOSSA: O god, I am overwhelmed
\nwith so much bitter sorrow! But one thing
\nmore than all the others gnaws my heart\u2014
\nthe disgraceful appearance of my son,
\nthe shameful clothing covering his limbs.
\nBut I will go and get appropriate robes
\nand try to find my son. In this distress, [850]
\nI will not abandon those most dear to me.<\/p>\n

[Atossa exits.]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! How glorious and good the life
\nwe loved here in our well-run city,
\nwhen our old sovereign ruled this land,
\nour all-sufficient and unconquered king,
\nwho never brought us war or grief,
\nour mighty godlike Darius.
\nFor first of all, we then displayed
\nour famous armies, and our traditions, [860]
\nlike towers of strength, ruled everything.
\nOur men returning from a war
\nfaced no disasters\u2014they reached
\ntheir prosperous homes unharmed.
\nDarius seized so many cities
\nand never crossed the Halys stream
\nor even left his home\u2014places like
\nthe Thracian Acheloan towns
\nbeside the Strymonian sea. [870]
\nAnd cities on the mainland, too,
\nfar from the sea, well fortified
\nwith walls encircling them
\nobeyed him as their king,
\nand so did places on both shores
\nalong the spacious Hellespont
\nand in the deep bays of Propontis
\nand where the Pontus flows into the sea.
\nAnd islands close to coastal headlands,
\nsurrounded by the sea, right next to us,
\nlike Lesbos, Samos, where olives grow,
\nand Chios, Paros, Naxos,
\nMykonos, along with Andros, too,
\nadjacent to its neighbour Teos.
\nHe ruled the wave-washed isles, as well,
\nwhich lie far out at sea\u2014Lemnos,
\nthe home of Icarus, and Rhodes,
\nwith Cnidus, too, and Cyprian cities\u2014
\nPaphos and Soli and Salamis,
\nwhose mother state has caused
\nour present cries of anguish.
\nAnd wealthy crowded cities of those Greeks
\ndescended from Ionian stock
\nhe ruled with his shrewd mind, [900]
\nand under his command he had
\nenormous armies of warrior men\u2014
\nall nations were allied with him.
\nBut now we must endure defeats
\nin wars inflicted by the gods.
\nWe cannot doubt the truth of this,
\nfor we have been destroyed in war,
\nby massive disaster on the sea.<\/p>\n

[Enter Xerxes.]<\/p>\n

XERXES: O my situation now is desperate!
\nMy luck has led me to a cruel fate [910]
\nwhich I did not foresee! How savagely
\na demon trampled on the Persian race.
\nWhat must I still endure in this distress?
\nAs I look on these ancient citizens,
\nthe strength in my limbs fails. O how I wish
\na fatal doom from Zeus had buried me
\nwith all those men who perished!<\/p>\n

CHORUS LEADER:\u00a0 Alas, my king,
\nfor our brave force and the mighty honour
\nof Persia\u2019s influence, those splendid men [920]
\nwhom fate has now cut down. The earth laments
\nher native youth, the soldiers Xerxes killed,
\nwho filled all Hades with the Persian dead.
\nSo many men\u2014our country\u2019s flowers\u2014slain,
\nthousands perishing from enemy bows,
\na close-packed multitude, all dead and gone.
\nAlas! Alas, for all our brave protectors!
\nO sovereign of the earth, all Asian lands
\nare now upon their knees, a dreadful sight, [930]
\nso dreadful. . . .<\/p>\n

XERXES: You see me here, alas, a sad
\nand useless wretch who has become
\nan evil presence for my race
\nand for my native land.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: For your return I will send out
\nin these harsh-sounding tones
\na cry of ominous grief,
\none full of tears, a shout
\nof Mariandynian sorrow. [940]<\/p>\n

XERXES: Then let your sad lament resound,
\na harsh and plaintive cry.
\nFor the god has turned against me.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Yes, I will sing my tearful chant
\nto honour the men who suffered so
\nin that defeat at sea\u2014a dirge
\nfrom those who mourn this land
\nand lament its slaughtered sons.
\nMy doleful grief I voice once more.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Ionian Ares with those ships of war [950]
\nturned the tide of victory
\nand swept our troops away\u2014
\nthe Greek fleet razed the murky sea
\nand that fatal cliff onshore.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Aaaaiii! Cry out your sorrows,
\nand learn the tale in full.
\nWhere are they now, that multitude
\nof other friends so dear to us?
\nWhere are the ones who stood by you\u2014
\nPharandaces, and Sousas, and Pelagon,
\nwith Agabatas and Dotamas,
\nPsammis, and Sousiskanes, [960]
\nwho came from Agbatana?<\/p>\n

XERXES: I left them there. They perished,
\ntumbling out of their Tyrian ship
\nby the coast of Salamis,
\nbeaten against its rugged shore.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Aaaiii! Where is Pharnouchus, your friend,
\nand Ariomardus, that glorious man?
\nAnd lord Seualcus or Lilaios,
\ndescended from a noble line, [970]
\nor Memphis, Tharybis, and Masistras,
\nor Hystaichmas and Artembares?
\nI am asking you about them, too.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Alas! Alas! They caught a glimpse
\nof ancient Athens, that hateful place!
\nNow all of them at one fell blow\u2014
\nthe pain of those poor wretches!\u2014
\nlie gasping on the shore.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: And did you really leave behind
\nAlpistos, son of Batanochus,
\nyour ever loyal Persian eye
\nwho tracked men by the thousands? [980]
\n[. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .]
\nThe sons of Sesames and Megabates,
\nwith Parthos and the great Oibares\u2014
\ndid you abandon them, as well,
\nand leave them with the others?
\nAlas, alas, for those poor men!
\nYou talk of catastrophic woes
\namong our noble Persians.<\/p>\n

XERXES: What you say truly makes me yearn
\nfor all my fine companions,
\nwhen you bring up the evil times, [990]
\nthat hateful woe I cannot bear.
\nFrom deep within, my grieving heart
\nhowls out my pain and sorrow.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: But there are other men we miss\u2014
\nlike Xanthes, who as commander
\ncaptained countless Mardian men,
\nas well as warlike Anchares,
\nand Diaixis, too, and Arsakes,
\nwho led the cavalry,
\nand Agdadatas, Lythimnas,
\nand Tolmus, too, whose appetite
\ncould never get enough of war.
\nI am amazed they are not here [1000]
\nmarching behind you in your train
\nwith your wheel-drawn carriage tent.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Those leaders of our forces are all dead.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: They are gone? Alas! And with no glory!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Aaaaiiii! The sorrow!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! Alas, you spirits above,
\nyou bring us such disaster,
\nso unforeseen and yet so clear to see,
\nas if the goddess of folly, Ate,
\nhad glanced at us in this calamity.<\/p>\n

XERXES: We have been hit by blows,
\nsmitten by unexpected blows of fate!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Yes, all too clearly stricken!<\/p>\n

XERXES: New troubles, strange disasters! [1010]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: It was bad luck for us we ran into
\nthose ships and sailors from Ionia.
\nThe Persian race, as we can see,
\nhas had no luck in war.<\/p>\n

XERXES: How can that be? Such a mighty force!
\nAnd I, a miserable wretch,
\nhave now been beaten down!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: And of our splendid Persian glory
\nwhat has not perished?<\/p>\n

XERXES: Do you see my robes\u2014
\nwhat\u2019s left of them?<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Yes, I see . . . I see them now.<\/p>\n

XERXES: And my quiver here . . . [1020]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: What are you saying?
\nIs this what has been saved?<\/p>\n

XERXES: . . . this holder for my arrows?<\/p>\n

CHORUS: So small a remnant from so many!<\/p>\n

XERXES: We have lost all our protectors!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Ionian troops are not afraid to fight.<\/p>\n

XERXES: They are a warlike race. I witnessed there
\nwhat I did not expect\u2014a great defeat.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: You mean the way they beat your warships\u2014
\nthat massive fleet?<\/p>\n

XERXES: When that disaster came,
\nI ripped my clothing.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! Alas!<\/p>\n

XERXES: And there were even more catastrophes
\nto make one cry \u201cAlas!\u201d<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Two and three times more!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Crushing grief\u2014but for our enemies great joy!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Our strength has been lopped off.<\/p>\n

XERXES: I am now naked\u2014stripped of my attendants!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: By deaths of friends who perished on the sea.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Weep for that catastrophe! Let your tears fall.
\nThen return back to your homes.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas, such grief!
\nAlas, for our distress!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Your cries of sorrow\u2014
\nlet them echo mine! [1040]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: An answering cry of anguished pain
\nfrom one grief to another.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Cry out and link together our laments!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Aaaaiiii! Misfortunes hard to bear!
\nFor I too share your grief!<\/p>\n

XERXES: For my sake beat your chests and groan!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: My sorrow drenches me with tears!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Shout out your cries to answer mine.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: We will respond to you, my king.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Now raise your voices high in your laments. [1050]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Aaaaaiiiii! Once more
\nwe mix our song of grief
\nwith these dark blows of pain!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Now beat your chests and as you do
\nhowl out a Mysian strain!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Such grief! Such sorrow!<\/p>\n

XERXES: And tear those white hairs on your chin!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: With fists I clench my beard and moan!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Let your shrill cries ring out!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: I will cry out!<\/p>\n

XERXES: And with your fingers rip your flowing robes! [1060]<\/p>\n

CHORUS: The pain! The sorrow!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Now tug your hair out as you cry
\nfor our lost army!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: With these fists
\nI clench my hair and moan!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Let your eyes fill with tears.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: They do! They do!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Shout out your cries to answer mine.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! Alas!<\/p>\n

XERXES: And now, as you lament, go home.<\/p>\n

CHORUS; Alas! Alas! Such grief to move [1070]
\nacross our Persian land.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Such grief throughout the city.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: So much pain, so much distress!<\/p>\n

XERXES: Tread softly as you wail your grief.<\/p>\n

CHORUS: Alas! Alas! Such grief to move
\nacross our Persian land.<\/p>\n

XERXES: Aaaaiii! Alas, for those destroyed
\nin the flat bottomed boats\u2014
\nthe power of those three-tiered galleys!<\/p>\n

CHORUS: I will be your escort and attend on you
\nwith mournful cries of sorrow.<\/p>\n

[Xerxes and the Chorus exit.]<\/p>\n

\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017\u2017<\/p>\n

Source of translation: <\/em><\/strong>Ian Johnston 2023<\/span>, public domain (link<\/a>).<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Ancient author: Aeschylus (early fifth century BCE), Persians in full (link; link to Greek). Comments: Edith Hall’s ground-breaking work (of 1989) on Greek tragedy argues that the Greek concept of the “barbarian” other first emerged in reaction to the external Persian threat and that the earliest manifestation of the Greek-barbarian dichotomy is to be found […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[71,224,320,296,94],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-18770","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-02-greek-and-roman-ethnography-on-barbarians","category-d-eastern-peoples","category-aischylos-aeschylus-greek","category-ethnicity-ancient-world","category-persians-iranians-magians"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/18770","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=18770"}],"version-history":[{"count":19,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/18770\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":19295,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/18770\/revisions\/19295"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=18770"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=18770"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.philipharland.com\/Blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=18770"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}