Citation with stable link: Philip A. Harland, 'Persians: Lactantius on Magians’ expertise on lower spirits and on their lack of true wisdom (early fourth century CE),' Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World, last modified August 23, 2026, https://philipharland.com/Blog/?p=23129.

Ancient author: Lactantius (early fourth century CE), Divine Institutes 2.14, 2.16, and 4.2 (link; link to Latin).

Comments: I have already discussed the centrality of ethnographic examples of false and distorted customs, including human sacrifice, in the opening book of Lactantius’ Divine Institutions (link). In these passages below from book two and four, Lactantius turns to some further obstacles and false notions that have stood in the way of people recognizing true wisdom and, therefore, their obligation (religio) to the one true God.

In this case, Lactantius explains that evil lower spirits (daimones, “demons”), who were offspring of the angels that mated with humans (as in Genesis 6 and expanded in 1 Enoch), have made conscious efforts to sabatoge humanity by tricking them into believing that the lower spirits are, in fact, gods to be worshipped. (There are affinities here with the earlier theories of Justin of Flavia Neapolis.) Furthermore, and importantly for us here, Lactantius presents Persian Magians as experts in summoning these very evil lower spirits, thereby tricking people and leading them away from the one true God. This presentation of Magians as deceptive tricksters or even evil criminals who are to be dismissed entirely has affinities with the views of Pliny the Elder (link).

In taking this approach, Lactantius (and Pliny for that matter) is working against another common interpretation that suggests that Magians are, in fact, a source of true ancient wisdom (as in Celsus as discussed by Origen – link). Hence earlier circulating traditions (rejected by Lactantius in a passage below) regarding Pythagoras’ (link) and Plato’s (link) journeys to learn some truth from Persian Magians (rather than from Judeans). Lactantius accepts Judeans as a source of true wisdom only in historical terms, however, as he clearly hints that they no longer possess full access to the truth. Implied is that Jesus adherents like Lactantius are the experts to consult on truth and wisdom. This evaluation of Judeans’ wisdom goes further than Origen, it seems.

While Lactantius rejects Persian Magians here, elsewhere he will positively cite writings attributed to the Persian or Median Hystaspes as though they are legitimate sources of knowledge (link). So not all Persian or Median wisdom is off track.

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[Origins of lower spirits, or “demons” / daimones]

(2.14) When, therefore, the human population had begun to increase, God in his forethought sent angels for the protection and improvement of humanity. He did this to prevent the devil (diabolus), to whom he had given power over the earth from the outset, from either corrupting or destroying men through his subtle means, as the devil had done at first [i.e. in the garden of Eden]. Insofar as God had given angels free will, he enjoined them above all things not to defile themselves with impurities from the earth and by this lose the dignity of their heavenly nature. God plainly prohibited them from doing what he knew that they would in fact do, so that they would have no hope of forgiveness.

Therefore, while the angels lived among human beings, that most deceitful ruler of the earth gradually enticed them into terrible behaviours and polluted them by sexual intercourse with women. Then, not being admitted into heaven because of the sins they had plunged into, the angels who had sexual intercourse with women fell to the earth. Thus from angels the devil makes them to become his satellites and attendants.

[Two kinds of lower spirits / “demons” and the characteristics of the second, earthly kind]

But the offspring of these unions were neither angels nor humans but some kind of mixed nature, so the offspring were not admitted into hell just as their fathers were not admitted into heaven. Thus there came to be two kinds of lower spirits (daemones): one kind in heaven, the other on the earth. The latter are the wicked spirits, the authors of all the evils which are done, and the same devil is their prince. From this, [Hermes] Trismegistus calls him the “ruler of the demons.” But grammarians say that they are called lower spirits (daemones), as though daēmones [in Greek], that is, “skilled” and “acquainted” with matters, because they think that these are gods [Hermes Trismegistos, Asklepios 28]. They are in fact acquainted with many future events, but not all events, since they are not permitted to know the counsel of God completely. Therefore the lower spirits on the earth are accustomed to accommodate their answers to ambiguous results. The poets both know them to be lower spirits, and so describe them. Hesiod speaks like this: “These are the lower spirits (daimones in Greek) according to the will of Zeus the Great, living on the earth, the guardians of mortal men” [Works and Days 122-123].

And this is said for this purpose: because God had sent them as guardians over humanity. Even though they are the destroyers of men, they themselves still want themselves to appear as human beings’ guardians, so that the lower spirits themselves may be worshipped and God may not be worshipped. The philosophers also discuss the subject of these beings. For Plato attempted even to explain their natures in his work on the Symposium. Furthermore, Sokrates said that there was a lower spirit continually around him, who had become attached to him when he was a boy. He said that his life was guided by the lower spirit’s will and direction.

[Magian skills as entirely focussed on earthly lower spirits]

The skill (ars) and power of the Magians (Magi) consists entirely in the influences of these lower spirits. When they summon the Magians, humans’ power of sight is deceived so that they do not see things which do exist and they think they see things which do not exist.

[More about the character of these lower spirits]

These contaminated and abandoned spirits, as I say, wander over the whole earth and attempt to console themselves about their own ruin by destroying human beings. For this reason, they fill every place with traps, deceits, frauds, and errors. For they cling to individuals, they occupy entire houses from door to door, and they take on the name of genii [i.e. individuals’ own personal spirits specific to each person], for that is how they translate the [Greek] word daimones into Latin. They consecrate these in their houses, to these they daily pour out libations of wine, and they worship the wise lower spirits as gods of the earth and averters of those evils which the lower spirits themselves cause and impose. Since spirits are without substance and cannot be grasped, they insinuate themselves into the bodies of human beings. Secretly working in humans’ internal parts, they corrupt the health, encourage diseases, terrify their souls with dreams, harass their minds with phrenzies. They do these evils so that they may force humans to turn to the lower spirits for help. . . [omitted one main section on the fact that pious people have nothing to fear from lower spirits].

[Lower spirits as inventors of astrology, divination, and Magian skills]

(2.16) These lower spirits were the inventors of astrology, inspection of entrails, augury, divination, oracles, consultation of the dead, Magian skill (ars magica), and whatever other evil practices that people engage in either openly or secretly. Now all these things are false of themselves, as the Erythraian Sibyl testifies:  “Since all these things are erroneous, which foolish men search after day by day” [Sibylline Oracles 3.228-230].

But people believe that these same authorities are genuine since by their appearance they fool people by pretending to be divine, for it would not be helpful for them to reveal the truth. These are the ones who taught men to make images and statues. These are the ones who, in order that they might turn away the minds of people from the worship of the true God, cause the images of dead kings – fashioned and adorned with exquisite beauty – to be erected and consecrated. These are the ones who took on the dead kings’ (?) names, as though they were assuming some characters.

[Role of the Magians and the techniques of lower spirits]

But the Magians, and those whom the populace rightly call “evil-doers” (malefici), when they practice their detestable skills, call upon them [i.e. the evil spirits] by their true names, those heavenly names which can be read in the sacred writings. Moreover, these impure and wandering spirits interweave and mingle false things with true, so that that they can throw everything into confusion and cover the minds of people with errors. For the evil spirits themselves pretended that there are many heavenly beings [i.e. gods], and one king of all, Jupiter; because there are many spirits of angels in heaven, and one Parent and Lord of all, God. But they have concealed the truth under false names, and withdrawn it from sight. . . [omitted section on what God is like and the role of the Son of God].

[Summary of the section]

. . . But these are the delusions of those [lower spirits] who, concealing themselves under the names of the dead, lay snares for the living. Therefore, whether the impending danger can be avoided, they wish it to appear that they averted it, having been appeased. Or if a danger cannot be avoided, they contrive that it may appear to have happened through people disregarding them. Thus the lower spritis acquire for themselves authority and fear from people who are ignorant about them. By this subtlety and by these techniques, they have caused the knowledge of the true and only God to fail among all peoples. For, being destroyed by their own vices, they rage and use violence that they may destroy others. Therefore, these enemies of humanity even devised human victims, to devour as many lives as possible.

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[Judean wisdom and Persian Magian lack of wisdom, with reference to legends about Pythagoras and Plato]

(4.2) Therefore, if those so-called wise men [referring to Greek seven sages] were not wise, nor were those of later times [referring to later Greek pursuers of wisdom, or “philosophers”], namely those who did not hesitate to confess their lack of wisdom, there is nothing else left but to look for wisdom elsewhere, since it has not been found where it was looked for. But what can we suppose was the reason why it was not found, even though it was looked for with the greatest earnestness and labour by so many intellects and during so many ages, unless it is that pursuers of wisdom looked for it out of their own limits? And since they traversed and explored all parts, but nowhere found any wisdom, and it must of necessity be somewhere, it is evident that it should especially be looked for where the label “foolishness” appears. Under this covering God hides the treasury of wisdom and truth, to prevent the secret of his divine work from being exposed to view.

For this reason, I often wonder why, when Pythagoras and afterwards Plato – inflamed with the love of searching out the truth – made it as far the Egyptians, Magians, and Persians, so that they might become familiar with the customs and sacred things of the peoples – for they suspected that wisdom was concerned with a sense of obligation (religio) – they did not approach the Judeans alone. It was the Judeans only who possessed the truth at that time, and Pythagoras and Plato might have travelled to the Judeans more easily. But I think that Pythagoras and Plato were turned away from the Judeans by divine providence, so that they might not know the truth. This was because it was not yet permitted for the worship (religio) and justice of the true God to become known to foreign peoples (alienigenae).

For God had determined, as the end times drew close, to send from heaven a great leader who would reveal to the peoples (gentes) what was taken away from a promise-breaking and ungrateful population [i.e. Judeans]. And I will try to discuss this subject in this book, if I have first shown that wisdom is so closely united with a sense of obligation (religio), that the one cannot be separated from the other.

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Source of translation: W. Fletcher, The Works of Lactantius, Ante-Nicene Christian Library 21–22 (T&T Clark, 1871), public doman, adapted by Harland.