Citation with stable link: Philip A. Harland, 'Greeks, Persians, and Indians: Theophilos of Antioch combats charges of eating human flesh and incest against Jesus adherents (late second century CE),' Ethnic Relations and Migration in the Ancient World, last modified September 23, 2026, https://philipharland.com/Blog/?p=23386.
Ancient author: Theophilos of Antioch (180s CE), To Autolykos (link; link to Greek text with Grant’s translation)
Comments: According to Eusebios, Theophilos of Antioch was the overseer of the assembly of Jesus adherents at Antioch in Syria, and the reference to the death of Marcus Aurelius in the third book (3.27-28) to Autolykos means he wrote this part of the work in the 180s CE (Eusebios, Ecclesiastical History 4.24). There are some items of ethnographic interest in the three books he composed in order to correct his friend, Autolykos.
In book two, which deals extensively with writings of the Israelite prophets, there is Theophilos’ sketch of human migration that attempts to bring in a good number of contemporary peoples. In presenting this information, he is claiming that Christians have access to more reliable information about ancient migrations than Chaldeans (Babylonians) and Egyptians do, so there is a competitive edge.
The more significant ethnographic materials come out when Theophilos attempts to correct his contentious friend, who seems to have believed some of the incriminating rumours circulating that Christians were the most savage people imaginable. Moreover, they “claim that all our wives are held in common; that our lifestyle involves indiscriminate sexual intercourse; that we even commit incest with our own sisters; and, what is most godless and most savage of all, that we eat human flesh” (3.4). As with Justin’s and Athenagoras of Athens’ responses to these criminal charges, Theophilos engages in some retorsion. In the process of deflecting the accusations back at others, Theophilos targets first and foremost Greeks themselves, with their enthusiasm for gods who engage in incest, but also Persians and Indians, citing Herodotos to the effect that these peoples engaged in eating human flesh. Theophilos also counters that, quite the contrary, Christians engage in very pious and ethical lives.
Works consulted: R.M. Grant, Theophilus of Antioch Ad Autolycus (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970) (link).
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[Introduction to book one]
(1.1) Theophilos to Autolykos (or: Autolycus). Beautiful language and an elegant style produce pleasure and praise that results in empty glory for pitiful men whose minds have been corrupted. The person who loves truth does not pay attention to defiled language, but examines the real substance of the word, what it is and what it means. Since, then, my friend [Autokylos], you have attacked me with empty words, boasting about your gods of wood and stone, hammered and cast, carved and engraved, which neither see nor hear because they are phantoms (eidĹŤla; or: idols) and works of human hands. Furthermore, since you call me a “Christian,” as if this were an evil (kakos) name to bear, I confess that I am a Christian and bear this name “beloved by God” (theophiles), hoping to be useful to God. For it is not the case, as you suppose, that the name of God is hard to bear. Maybe you hold this opinion about God because you are yourself not yet useful to God. . . [omitted remainder of book one defending Christian teaching and Christians].
[Introduction to book two and the overall aim of the writing]
(2.1) Previousy when we had a discussion, my very good friend Autolykos, and when you asked who is my God and listened to what I said for a while, I made some explanations to you concerning my reverence for God (theosebeia). Then, after we said goodbye, we each went home with plenty of mutual friendliness, even though at first you had been somewhat harsh towards us [i.e. “Christians”]. For you know and remember that you assumed our teaching was foolish. Just as you later on urged me to do, I want to use this writing to more accurately demonstrate the empty toil and empty worship in which you are trapped, even though I am “unskilled in speaking” [Paul, 2 Corinthians 11:6]. Furthermore, I want to make the truth clear to you using a few of the written inquiries (historiai) which you own and read and perhaps do not yet quite understand. . . [omitted sections on Autolykos’ problematic notions and myths about the gods, including notions of the Stoics, followers of Plato, Homer, and Hesiod; omitted sections expounding proper notions about God in the Hebrew Bible and explaining the Genesis narrative about humanity’s fall into sin].
[Migrations and peoples]
(2.32) Therefore, those who love learning and love the study of ancient things may understand the inquiry and determine whether what we see in the prophets is recent or not by the following: For even though at first there were few people in the land of Arabia and Chaldea, after their languages were divided they nonetheless gradually began to multiply and spread over the whole earth. Some of them tended towards the east to live there, others went towards the parts of the great continent [Europe], and still others went northwards, extending as far as Britain in the Arctic regions (klimata). Others went to the land of Canaan, which is called Judea, to Phoenicia, to the regions of Ethiopia, Egypt, and Libya, to the so-called torrid region, and to the parts stretching towards the west. The rest went to places by the sea, to Pamphylia, Asia, Greece, and Macedonia. Finally, the rest went to Italy and the places called Gaul, Spain, and Germany. The result is that the whole world is now filled with inhabitants. Since then the settlement of the world by humankind was at first in three divisions in the east, the south, and the west. Later on, the remaining parts of the earth were inhabited, when people became very numerous.
Writers who do not know these things want to say that the world is shaped like a sphere and to compare the world to a cube. But how can they say what is true about these things when they do not know about the creation of the world and how it was settled? As men gradually “increased and multiplied” [Genesis 9:1] on the earth, as we have already said, the islands of the sea and the rest of the regions were settled.
[Christians’ accounts superior to all others, including those by Egyptians and Chaldeans]
(2.33) Who, then, among those called sages, poets, and writers of inquiries could tell us what is true about these things? They were born much later and introduced a multitude of gods. They were born so many years after the founding of cities and are more modern than kings, peoples (ethnē), and wars? For they should have mentioned all events, including those which happened before the flood, before the creation of the world and the formation of human beings, and before the whole succession of events. The Egyptian prophets or Chaldeans and the other writers, should have been able accurately to tell about those things, at least if they spoke by a divine and pure spirit and spoke the truth in everything they said. They should have announced not only things that happened in the past or present, but also those that were going to happen to the world in the future. Therefore, this proves that everyone else has been wrong, and that only Christians have possessed the truth, insofar as we are taught by the Holy Spirit, who spoke in the holy prophets and foretold all things. . . [omitted sections, including explanation of the teaching of the prophets of the Bible].
[Introduction to book three]
(3.1) Theophilos to Autolykos, greetings: Authors like to produce a multitude of books for empty glory, with some books about gods, wars, and chronology and other books about useless legends and other pointless work, work in which you also have been involved until now. You do not hold a grudge about working hard but, even though you talked with me, you still hold the opinion that the word of truth is useless trash and you assume that our writings are recent and modern. For this reason, I also will not hold a grudge about the hard work of summarizing – with God’s help – the most ancient of the writings by us, reminding you briefly so that you may not hold a grudge about the hard work of reading it but may recognise the nonsense of other authors. . . [omitted paragraph about how writings by Greek writers are useless].
[Countering charges of crimes against Christians through retorsion]
[Greeks’ stories of immoral gods]
(3.3) For all these Greek authors, having fallen in love with vain and empty reputation, neither knew the truth for themselves nor guided others to the truth. For the very things they said convict them of speaking inconsistently. Most of these authors demolished their own teachings. For not only did they refute one another, but some even nullified their own teachings. The result is that their reputation has ended in shame and foolishness, for they are condemned by men of understanding.
For either they made assertions about the gods and afterwards taught atheism. Or, if they even spoke about the creation of the world, they finally said that all things were produced spontaneously. Yes, and even speaking of providence they once again taught that the world was not ruled by providence.
But what? Even when they attempted to write about honourable behaviour, didn’t they teach the perpetration of unrestrained actions, sexual perversion, and adultery. Didn’t they introduce hateful and unmentionable deeds? And they proclaim that their gods took the lead in committing unutterable acts of adultery and in monstrous banquets. For who does not sing about Kronos the child-eater and Zeus his son gulping down Metis and preparing for the gods a horrible feast where, they say, Hephaistos, a lame blacksmith, served them. What about how Zeus not only married Hera, his own sister, but also used his foul mouth to do utterable deeds? It is likely that you are acquainted with the rest of his actions, as many as the poets sing about. Why do I need to further recount the actions of Poseidon, Apollo, Dionysos, Herakles, the dance-loving Athena and the shameless Aphrodite, since we have given a more accurate account of these in another place [1.9-10]?
[Rumours and charges]
(3.4) There would be no need for me to refute these things, except that I see you are still in doubt about the word of the truth. For even though you yourself are prudent, you tolerate fools gladly. Otherwise you would not have been moved by senseless men to yield yourself to empty words, and to give credit to the prevalent rumour by which godless lips falsely accuse us, god-fearers and also called “Christians.” They claim that our wives all are held in common; that our lifestyle involves indiscriminate sexual intercourse; that we even commit incest with our own sisters; and, what is most godless and most savage (ĹŤmotatos) of all, that we eat human flesh.
Furthermore, they say that our teaching has only recently come to light, that we have no proof for what we receive as truth nor for our teaching, and that our teaching is foolishness. I am mainly amazed, then, that you, who in other respects study things carefully and scrutinize things, only give an indifferent hearing to us. For, if you could, you would not hestitate about spending a night in the libraries
[Retorsion on the charge of eating human flesh]
[Greek Stoic philosophers]
(3.5) Since, then, you have read much, what is your opinion of the precepts contained in the books of Zeno, Diogenes, and Kleanthes [i.e. all with Stoic connections], advocating the eating of human flesh – that fathers should be cooked and eaten by their own children and that if any one refuses or rejects a part of this notorious food, the person who refuses to eat will be devoured?
[Persians and Indians, citing Herodotos]
There is an even more godless saying than these, namely, the saying of Diogenes, who teaches children to bring their own parents in sacrifice and to devour them. Doesn’t Herodotos, the writer of inquiries, narrate that Cambyses [king of Persia], when he had slaughtered the children of Harpagos, also cooked them and presented them as a meal before their father? And, still further, Herodotos narrates that among the Indians the parents are eaten by their own children. Oh, the godless teaching of those who recorded, yes, rather, advocated such things! Oh, their wickedness and godlessness! Oh, the understanding of those who in his way accurately pursued and professed wisdom! For the ones who taught these teachings have filled the world with impiety.
[Retorsion on the charge of sexual perversion, citing Greek philosophers]
(3.6) And regarding conduct against established law, those who have blindly wandered into the choir for the pursuit of wisdom (philosophia) have, almost all of them, spoken with one voice. Certainly Plato, to mention him first who seems to have been the most respectable philosopher among them, expressly legislates in his first book entitled The Republic [5.457d] that everyone’s wives should be held in common. Plato cites the precedent of the son of Zeus who was the lawgiver of the Kretans so that, under this pretext, there might be plenty of children born from the best persons and so that those who were worn with toil might be comforted by such sexual intercourse.
In addition to teaching atheism, Epicurus himself also teaches incest with mothers and sisters, and this in transgression of the laws which forbid it. For Solon [the Athenian lawgiver] distinctly legislated regarding this, in order that children might lawfully come from a married parent so that they might not be born as a result of adultery and so that no one would honour as his father someone who was not his father or dishonour his actual father through ignorance that he was his actual father. The other laws of the Romans and Greeks also prohibit these things. Why, then, do Epicurus and the Stoics teach incest and men mounting men for sex, with which teachings they have filled libraries, so that from boyhood this lawless (athesmos) sexual intercourse is learned? And why should I further spend time on them, since they even say similar things about those they call gods? . . . [omitted material].
[Teachings of Jesus adherents not compatible with the charges of crimes, with further retorsion]
(3.15) Consider, therefore, whether those who teach things like this [i.e. according to the teachings followed by Jesus adherents just outlined] can possibly live indifferently and be mixed up in unlawful sex or, most impious of all, eat human flesh. This is especially the situation when we are even forbidden to witness gladiator shows in case we become participants or accompalices in murder. Yet nor can we see the other spectacles in case our eyes and ears are defiled, participating in the songs they sing there. For if one mentions a meal of human flesh, in these spectacles the children of Thyestes and Tereus are eaten. Regarding adultery, both in the case of humans and of gods – whom they celebrate in elegant language for honours and prizes – this is a topic in their tragedies.
However, far be it from Christians to even contemplate such actions. For with them moderation is present, self-control is practised, marriage of one person is observed, chastity is guarded, injustice is undone, mistakes are uprooted, righteousness exercised, law administered, reverence of God is performed, God is confessed; truth governs, grace guards, peace covers them, the holy word guides, wisdom teaches, life directs, and God reigns.
Therefore, although we have much to say regarding our communal organization and the judgements of God, who made all creation, we still think that we have now reminded you about enough so that you might know them, especially since you can now read this for yourself. Just as you have been a lover of learning until now, you will also really become a lover of learning. . . [omitted discussion of biblical chronology drawing on Josephos’ Against Apion, although in the process Theophilos does aim to debunk Phoenician and Egyptian alternatives and establish Hebrew or Judean ones as authoritative].
[Conclusion referring to competition with Greeks for priority]
(3.30) But the Greeks do not mention inquiries which supply the truth. First of all, this is because they themselves only recently came to share in the knowledge of letters. Greeks themselves admit this when some of them say say that letters were invented by Chaldeans, others by Egyptians, and still others say that letters are derived from the Phoenicians. Second, this is because they got tripped up and still get tripped up by not making mention of God, but empty and useless issues. For thus they enthusiastically celebrate Homer and Hesiod and the rest of the poets, but they not only fail to mention but even blaspheme the glory of the incorruptible and only God. Yes, and they persecuted and still daily persecute those who worship God. Not only that, but they even grant prizes and honours on those who in harmonious language insult God. Regarding those who are zealous in the pursuit of virtue and the practise a holy life, they stoned some, put others to death, and up until now they subject them to savage tortures. So such people have necessarily lost the wisdom of God, and have not found the truth. If you are willing, then, read these things carefully so that you may have an adviser and pledge of the truth.
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Source of translation: M. Dods, “The Three Books of Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus,” in Ante-Nicene Christian Library: Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down to A.D. 325, volume 2, eds. A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, eds. (Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1867), 49-133, adapted by Harland.